Bandgap characteristics of phononic crystals in steady and unsteady flows.

Over the past 30 years, most phononic crystal research has been done for a stationary medium. As reported in a recent experimental study, phononic crystals cannot preserve their bandgaps in the presence of flow. In this study, the bandgap characteristics of a two-dimensional phononic crystal in steady and unsteady flows are investigated theoretically. To identify the effect of the flow on sound insulation in the bandgap frequency ranges, the acoustic reflectance spectra of phononic crystals for different types of background flows, including a uniform flow, a compressible potential flow, and a turbulent flow were calculated. For the steady flows, which include uniform and compressible potential flows, the reflectance spectra are shifted to a lower frequency by the factor 1-M2 due to convection when the flow is in the same direction as the incident wave. Moreover, the reflectance spectra of a phononic crystal in a turbulent flow were evaluated for various combinations of inflow speeds and geometric parameters, such as the filling ratio and the number of layers. Due to the aerodynamic noise and fluid convection, a phononic crystal cannot work as an acoustic barrier, rather it becomes an aeroacoustic source in a turbulent flow.

Saikosaponin D isolated from Bupleurum falcatum inhibits selectin-mediated cell adhesion.

Three saikosaponins were isolated from the MeOH extract of the roots of Bupleurum falcatum L.: saikosaponins B3 (1); B4 (2); and D (3). Of the three, compound 3 inhibited the interaction of selectins (E, L, and P) and THP-1 cells with IC50 values of 1.8, 3.0 and 4.3 µM, respectively. Also, the aglycone structure 4 of compound 3 showed moderate inhibitory activity on L-selectin-mediated cell adhesion. From these results, we suspect that compound 3 isolated from Bupleurum falcatum roots would be a good candidate for therapeutic strategies to treat inflammation.

Comparative hepatic proteome analysis between lean and obese rats fed a high-fat diet reveals the existence of gender differences.

Gender differences in obesity stem from metabolic and hormonal differences between sexes and contribute to differences between women and men in health risks attributable to obesity. We hypothesized that liver may be an ideal target for the evaluation of gender differences in obesity development in response to a high-fat diet (HFD). Therefore, to test this hypothesis, we performed a global proteome analysis in the liver of lean and obese rats of both genders who were fed an HFD through 2-DE combined with MALDI-TOF-MS. When rats were exposed to HFD, male rats gained more body weight with increased values of plasma biochemical parameters than female rats. Image analysis and further statistical analysis of a 2-DE protein map allowed for the detection and identification of 34 proteins that were significantly modulated in a gender-dependent manner. We found 19 proteins showing identical gender-different regulation in both normal diet (ND) and HFD. Five proteins also showed clear gender differences in both ND and HFD; however, their regulation modes in HFD were opposite to those in ND. Of particular interest, 10 proteins showed gender differences only in either ND or HFD rats. Present proteomic insight into gender-dimorphic protein modulation in liver would aid in the improvement of gender awareness in the health-care system and in implementation of evidence-based gender-specific clinical recommendations.

Gender-dependent protein expression in white adipose tissues of lean and obese rats fed a high fat diet.

BACKGROUND: Proper understanding of molecular mechanisms underlying gender dimorphism in obesity for better nutritional recommendation is still in early stages. As white adipose tissues (WAT) is most important tissue in obesity metabolism, comparative proteomic analysis of all three WAT deposits at the same time to yield immensely important protein markers was the primary goal of this study. METHODS: We performed differential expression analysis of protein profiles of three different WAT viz. subcutaneous, inguinal, and abdominal fat deposits of both genders in lean and obese rats fed a high fat diet (HFD) using a combination of 2-DE and MALDI-TOF-MS. RESULTS: The proteomics analysis enabled us to detect 25, 29, and 46 proteins showing gender differences in three WAT deposits, respectively, to gain insight into cause of higher body weight gain in male in response to HFD. CONCLUSION: The gender dimorphism found in this proteomic study implies that female rats have a lower tendency to undergo metabolic syndrome manifestation, which is associated with lower reliance on lipid as an energy fuel, lower lipogenesis, as well as increased mitochondrial oxidative capacity. In conclusion, most of the candidate proteins identified herein by differential proteomics were previously unrecognized in gender dimorphism of adipose tissue.

DNA microarray analysis reveals differential gene expression in the soleus muscle between male and female rats exposed to a high fat diet.

It is well recognized that diet-induced dysfunctions in skeletal muscle are closely related with many metabolic diseases, such as obesity and diabetes. In the present study, we identified global changes in gender-dependent gene expressions in the soleus muscle of lean and obese rats fed a high fat diet (HFD), using DNA microarray analysis. Prior to microarray analysis, the body weight gains were found to be higher in male HFD rats than the female HFD rats. To better understand the detailed phenotypic differences in response to HFD feeding, we identified differential gene expression in soleus muscle between the genders. To this end, we extracted and summarized the genes that were up- or down-regulated more than 1.5-fold between the genders in the microarray data. As expected, a greater number of genes encoding myofibrillar proteins and glycolytic proteins were expressed higher in males than females when exposed to HFD, reflecting greater muscular activity and higher capacity for utilizing glucose as an energy fuel. However, a series of genes involved in oxidative metabolism and cellular defenses were more up-regulated in females than males. These results allowed us to conclude that compared to males, females have greater fat clearing capacity in skeletal muscle through the activation of genes encoding enzymes for fat oxidation. In conclusion, our microarray data provide a better understanding of the molecular events underlying gender dimorphism in soleus muscle, and will provide valuable information in improving gender awareness in the health care system.

Quantitative method for measuring therapeutic efficacy of the 308 nm excimer laser for vitiligo.

BACKGROUND: There are several available treatments for vitiligo, but measurement of their therapeutic efficacy is not standardized and is somewhat arbitrary based largely on the global impression of the overall response. The purpose of this study was to develop a quantitative method for evaluating the treatment response of vitiligo measuring changes in area using digital image analysis. We applied this parametric model to the evaluation of efficacy of the 308 nm excimer laser. METHODS: This study was a retrospective study, designed as a before and after trial with a single arm. A total of 18 patients were enrolled who had been treated with a 308 nm excimer laser as monotherapy twice a week for 20 sessions. The repigmentation percentage was calculated by measuring changes in area before and after treatment using digital image analysis and graded on a five-point ordinal scale [global assessment scale (GAS)]. GAS was also measured by physician and patient for comparison with our estimates. Additional GASs were also measured by four different evaluators for inter-rater variability. RESULTS: The mean repigmentation percentage after treatment was 45.3% (range, 0.7-100%). The changes in area after treatment were statistically significant (P < 0.05). A substantial agreement of outcomes was observed between physicians and digital image analysis (κ(w) = 0.78), but lower agreement was observed between patients and digital image analysis (κ(w) = 0.49). The inter-rater variability for GAS was substantially low (Krippendorff's α = 79.3%). CONCLUSION: Measurement of changes in area using digital image analysis could be used as a quantitative method in evaluating efficacy of treatment for vitiligo. Because vitiligo lesions can occur in any location with various shapes and sizes, digital image analysis would be a more objective method for measuring treatment response than a GAS.

Itaconate and Its Derivatives Repress Early Myogenesis In Vitro and In Vivo.

A Krebs cycle intermediate metabolite, itaconate, has gained attention as a potential antimicrobial and autoimmune disease treatment due to its anti-inflammatory effects. While itaconate and its derivatives pose an attractive therapeutic option for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, the effects outside the immune system still remain limited, particularly in the muscle. Therefore, we endeavored to determine if itaconate signaling impacts muscle differentiation. Utilizing the well-established C2C12 model of in vitro myogenesis, we evaluated the effects of itaconate and its derivatives on transcriptional and protein markers of muscle differentiation as well as mitochondrial function. We found itaconate and the derivatives dimethyl itaconate and 4-octyl itaconate disrupt differentiation media-induced myogenesis. A primary biological effect of itaconate is a succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) inhibitor. We find the SDH inhibitors dimethyl malonate and harzianopyridone phenocopie the anti-myogenic effects of itaconate. Furthermore, we find treatment with exogenous succinate results in blunted myogenesis. Together our data indicate itaconate and its derivatives interfere with in vitro myogenesis, potentially through inhibition of SDH and subsequent succinate accumulation. We also show 4-octyl itaconate suppresses injury-induced MYOG expression in vivo. More importantly, our findings suggest the therapeutic potential of itaconate, and its derivatives could be limited due to deleterious effects on myogenesis.

Dichloroacetate improves systemic energy balance and feeding behavior during sepsis.

Sepsis is a life-threatening organ dysfunction caused by dysregulated host response to an infection. The metabolic aberrations associated with sepsis underly an acute and organism-wide hyperinflammatory response and multiple organ dysfunction; however, crosstalk between systemic metabolomic alterations and metabolic reprogramming at organ levels remains unknown. We analyzed substrate utilization by the respiratory exchange ratio, energy expenditure, metabolomic screening, and transcriptional profiling in a cecal ligation and puncture model to show that sepsis increases circulating free fatty acids and acylcarnitines but decreases levels of amino acids and carbohydrates, leading to a drastic shift in systemic fuel preference. Comparative analysis of previously published metabolomics from septic liver indicated a positive correlation with hepatic and plasma metabolites during sepsis. In particular, glycine deficiency was a common abnormality of the plasma and liver during sepsis. Interrogation of the hepatic transcriptome in septic mice suggested that the septic liver may contribute to systemic glycine deficiency by downregulating genes involved in glycine synthesis. Interestingly, intraperitoneal injection of the pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase (PDK) inhibitor dichloroacetate reversed sepsis-induced anorexia, energy imbalance, inflammation, dyslipidemia, hypoglycemia, and glycine deficiency. Collectively, our data indicated that PDK inhibition rescued systemic energy imbalance and metabolic dysfunction in sepsis partly through restoration of hepatic fuel metabolism.

Dynamic calibration of process-wide partial-nitritation modeling with airlift granular for nitrogen removal in a full-scale wastewater treatment plant.

A main challenge in rapid nitrogen removal from rejected water in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) is growth of biomass by nitrite-oxidizing bacteria (NOB) and ammonia-oxidizing bacteria (AOB). In this study, partial nitritation (PN) coupled with air-lift granular unit (AGU) technology was applied to enhance nitrogen-removal efficiency in WWTPs. For successful PN process at high-nitrogen-influent conditions, a pH of 7.5-8 for high free-ammonia concentrations and AOB for growth of total bacterial populations are required. The PN process in a sequential batch reactor (SBR) with AGU was modeled as an activated sludge model (ASM), and dynamic calibration using full-scale plant data was performed to enhance aeration in the reactor and improve the nitrite-to-ammonia ratio in the PN effluent. In steady-state and dynamic calibrations, the measured and modeled values of the output were in close agreement. Sensitivity analysis revealed that the kinetic and stoichiometric parameters are associated with growth and decay of heterotrophs, AOB, and NOB microorganisms. Overall, 80% of the calibrated data fit the measured data. Stage 1 of the dynamic calibration showed NO2 and NO3 values close to 240 mg/L and 100 mg/L, respectively. Stage 2 showed NH4 values of 200 mg/L at day 30 with the calibrated effluent NO2 and NO3 value of 250 mg/L. In stage 3, effluent NH4 concentration was 200 mg/L at day 60.

Proteome changes in rat plasma in response to sibutramine.

Sibutramine is an anti-obesity agent that induces weight loss by selective inhibition of neuronal reuptake of serotonin and norepinephrine; however, it is associated with the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD), including heart attack and stroke. Here, we analyzed global protein expression patterns in plasma of control and sibutramine-treated rats using proteomic analysis for a better understanding of the two conflicting functions of this drug, appetite regulation, and cardiovascular risk. The control (n=6) and sibutramine-treated groups (n=6) were injected by vehicle and sibutramine, respectively, and 2-DE combined with MALDI-TOF/MS were performed. Compared to control rats, sibutramine-administered rats gained approximately 18% less body weight and consumed about 13% less food. Plasma leptin and insulin levels also showed a significant decrease in sibutramine-treated rats. As a result of proteomic analysis, 23 differentially regulated proteins were discovered and were reconfirmed by immunoblot analysis. Changed proteins were classified into appetite regulation and cardiovascular risk, according to their regulation pattern. Because the differential levels of proteins that have been well recognized as predictors of CVD risk were not well matched with the results of our proteomic analysis, this study does not conclusively prove that sibutramine has an effect on CVD risk.

Differential expression of adipose tissue proteins between obesity-susceptible and -resistant rats fed a high-fat diet.

One of the major questions in the field of obesity is why some humans become obese (obesity prone, OP) and others resist the development of obesity (obesity resistant, OR) when exposed to a high-calorie diet, which has not been completely studied. Therefore, in the present study, in order to gain insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying this propensity, we have performed a comparative analysis of protein expression profiles in white adipose tissue (WAT) and brown adipose tissue (BAT) of rats fed a high-fat diet by 2-DE and MALDI-TOF-MS. Protein mapping of homogenates revealed significant alterations to a number of proteins; 60 and 70 proteins were differentially regulated in BAT and WAT, respectively. For careful interpretation of proteomic results, we categorized the identified proteins into two groups by analysis of both average spot density of pooled six rat adipose tissues and individual spot density of each adipose tissue of six rats as a function of body weight. One of the most striking findings of this study was that significant changes of Ehd1 and laminin receptor in BAT as well as antiquitin, DJ-1 protein, and paraoxonase 2 in WAT were found for the first time in obese rats. In addition, we confirmed the increased expression of some thermogenic enzymes and decreased lipogenic enzymes in adipose tissues of OR rats by immunoblot analysis. To our knowledge, this is the first proteomic study of profiling of protein modulation in OP and OR rats, thereby providing the first global evidence for different propensities to obesity between OP and OR rats.

Changes in expression of skeletal muscle proteins between obesity-prone and obesity-resistant rats induced by a high-fat diet.

A primary goal in obesity research is to determine why some people become obese (obesity-prone, OP) and others do not (obesity-resistant, OR) when exposed to high-calorie diets. The metabolic changes that cause reduced adiposity and resistance to obesity development have yet to be determined. We thus performed proteomic analysis on muscular proteins from OP and OR rats in order to determine whether other novel molecules are involved in this response. To this end, rats were fed a low- or high-fat diet for 8 weeks and were then classified into OP and OR rats by body weight gain. OP rats gained about 25% more body weight than OR rats, even though food intake did not differ significantly between the two groups. Proteomic analysis using 2-DE demonstrated differential expression of 26 spots from a total of 658 matched spots, of which 23 spots were identified as skeletal muscle proteins altered between OP and OR rats by peptide mass fingerprinting. Muscle proteome data enabled us to draw the conclusion that enhanced regulation of proteins involved in lipid metabolism and muscle contraction, as well as increased expression of marker proteins for oxidative muscle type (type I), contributed to obesity-resistance; however, antioxidative proteins did not.

Gender difference in proteome of brown adipose tissues between male and female rats exposed to a high fat diet.

BACKGROUND: Although the importance of gender as a key determinant in health and illness has been recognized for a long time, systematic studies of gender differences in medicine are still lacking. We hypothesized that interscapular brown adipocyte tissue (BAT), is not only a key tissue contributing to energy expenditure, but also regulates diet-induced thermogenesis, and may be an ideal target for studying gender differences in obesity development in response to a high fat diet (HFD). METHODS: We therefore performed differential proteome analysis of BAT from lean and obese rats of both genders fed a HFD using 2-DE combined with MALDI-TOF-MS. RESULTS: When exposed to a HFD, male rats gained more body weight with increased values of plasma biochemical parameters than did female rats. Among 595 matched spots, 48 differentially expressed identified spots showed significant gender differences, whereas 7 proteins showed no gender differences, but did show a HFD response. CONCLUSIONS: Proteomic investigations into gender-dimorphic protein modulation in BAT may provide conclusive results showing higher expression of numerous proteins involved in thermogenesis and fat oxidation as well as lower expression of proteins contributing to fat synthesis in female rats than in male rats.

Gender dimorphism in skeletal muscle proteome between lean and diet-induced obese rats.

BACKGROUND: Although it has been believed for a long time that gender differences in physiology and metabolism were not relevant beyond the reproductive system, new research has indicated that sexual dimorphism may be more prevalent than previously believed. Therefore, the goal of this study was to develop a global view of the changes in gender-dependent protein abundance in two different types of skeletal muscles (soleus and gastrocnemius) of lean and high fat diet (HFD)-induced obese rats. METHODS: To examine differential expression of proteins between gender and diet, we performed differential proteome analysis of skeletal muscle from lean and obese rats of both genders fed a HFD using 2-DE combined with MALDI-TOF-MS. RESULTS: Our gender-specific proteome comparison showed that male and female rats displayed different patterns of proteome regulation including proteins involved in muscle contraction, carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, oxidative phosphorylation, as well as detoxification and antioxidant defenses. CONCLUSIONS: most of the candidate proteins identified herein by differential proteomics were previously unrecognized in gender dimorphism of skeletal muscle. Our data can serve as the basis for specific evidence-based interventions allowing for the prevention and treatment of obesity by matching the different needs of women and men such as the development of gender-based medicine.

Differential expression of liver proteins between obesity-prone and obesity-resistant rats in response to a high-fat diet.

Rodents respond to a chronic high-fat diet (HFD) in two ways: some readily become obese (obesity prone, OP) and others do not (obesity resistant, OR). Although several hypotheses have been proposed, the mechanisms underlying the inter-individual susceptibility to diet-induced obesity remain to be fully defined. In the present study, two-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE) combined with matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation time-of-flight MS was carried out for identification of differentially expressed liver proteins in OP and OR rats fed a HFD, in an attempt to discover marker proteins involved in susceptibility and/or resistance to obesity in rat liver. The 2-DE analysis demonstrated that forty spots from 380 visualised spots were differentially regulated between the groups. Among these forty spots, twelve were differentially expressed proteins between OP and OR rats, reaching statistical significance. Of these, five proteins have already been linked to obesity; however, seven proteins involved in obesity susceptibility or resistance were identified for the first time in the present study. In order to validate the proteomic results and gain insight into the metabolic changes between the OP and OR groups, we further confirmed the expression pattern of some proteins of interest by Western blot analysis. Combined results of proteomic analysis with Western blot analysis revealed that reduced lipogenesis and increased fat oxidation were achieved in the livers of OR rats. In conclusion, the present proteomic study is an important advance over the previous steps required for identification of OP and OR rats, and should prove valuable in the search for the pathogenesis of obesity in humans.

Plasma proteome analysis in diet-induced obesity-prone and obesity-resistant rats.

One of the major issues in the field of obesity is why some humans become obese and others resist development of obesity when exposed to high-calorie diets. Despite the same genetic background, namely obesity-prone (OP) and -resistant (OR) rats, differing responses have been demonstrated in a high fat diet-induced rodent model. The aim of the present study was to discover novel obesity-related biomarkers for susceptibility and/or resistance to obesity by proteomic analysis of OP and OR rat plasma. After feeding of high fat diet, OP rats gained approximately 25% more body weight than OR rats and were used for proteomic analysis using 2-DE combined with MALDI-TOF-MS. We categorized identified proteins into three groups by analysis of both average spot density in each group and individual spot density of six rats as a function of body weight. Consequently, category (1) included inter-α-inhibitor H4 heavy chain and fetuin B precursor, which can be used as novel plasma biomarkers for risk of obesity. Nine proteins of category (2) and (3) can also be plausible plasma markers in the study of obesity. This proteomic study is an important advancement over the previous steps needed for identification of OP and OR rats.

Effects of blood contamination on microtensile bond strength to dentin of three self-etch adhesives.

This study evaluated the effects of blood contamination and decontamination methods during different steps of bonding procedures on the microtensile bond strength of two-step self-etch adhesives to dentin. Sixty extracted human molars were ground flat to expose occlusal dentin. The 60 molars were randomly assigned to three groups, each treated with a different two-step self-etch adhesive: Clearfil SE Bond, AdheSE and Tyrian SPE. In turn, these groups were subdivided into five subgroups (n = 20), each treated using different experimental conditions as follows: control group-no contamination; contamination group 1-CG1: primer application/ contamination/primer re-application; contamination group 2-CG2: primer application/contamination/wash/dry/primer re-application; contamination group 3-CG3: primer application/adhesive application/light curing/contamination/ adhesive re-application/light curing; contamina- tion group 4-CG4: primer application/adhesive application/light curing/contamination/wash/ dry/adhesive re-application/light curing. Composite buildup was performed using Z250. After 24 hours of storage in distilled water at 37 degrees C, the bonded specimens were trimmed to an hourglass shape and serially sectioned into slabs with 0.6 mm2 cross-sectional areas. Microtensile bond strengths (MTBS) were assessed for each specimen using a universal testing machine. The data were analyzed by two-way ANOVA followed by a post hoc LSD test. SEM evaluations of the fracture modes were also performed. The contaminated specimens showed lower bond strengths than specimens in the control group (p < 0.05), with the exception of CG1 in the Clearfil SE group and CG2 and CG3 in the Tyrian SPE group. Among the three self-etch adhesives, the Tyrian SPE group exhibited a significantly lower average MTBS compared to the Clearfil SE Bond and AdheSE (p < 0.05) groups. Based on the results of the current study, it was found that blood contamination reduced the MTBS of all three self-etch adhesives to dentin, and water-rinsing was unable to overcome the effects of blood contamination.

Quality properties of various dietary fibers as isolated soy protein (ISP) replacements in pork emulsion systems.

This study aimed to investigate the possibility of replacing the isolated soy protein (ISP) as a binding agent for wheat, oat, and bamboo shoot dietary fibers. Dietary fibers and ISP were added to manufacturing process of pork emulsion, respectively, for investigate quality properties. Moisture contents of pork emulsion added wheat fiber-treated group was significantly higher than ISP-treated group (p < 0.05), and protein contents of dietary fiber-treated group were significantly lower than ISP-treated group (p < 0.05). Raw pork emulsion CIE a* value of oat, bamboo shoot fiber-treated group were significantly lower than ISP-treated group (p < 0.05). After cooking pork emulsion CIE L* value of dietary fiber-treated group were significantly higher than ISP-treated group (p < 0.05). Raw pork emulsion water holding capacity (WHC) of wheat, oat fiber-treated group were significantly higher than ISP-treated group (p < 0.05), and cooked pork emulsion WHC of wheat, bamboo shoot fiber-treated group were higher than ISP-treated group (p < 0.05). Cooking loss of ISP-treated group was significantly higher than dietary fiber-treated group (p < 0.05), and viscosity of ISP-treated group was lower than dietary fiber-treated group. Hardness of ISP-treated group was significantly lower than dietary fiber-treated group (p < 0.05); however, cohesiveness of ISP-treated group was significantly higher than dietary fiber-treated group (p < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary fiber added as binding agent to manufacturing process of pork emulsion was suitable to replacing ISP.

Palmitate-induced autophagy liberates monounsaturated fatty acids and increases Agrp expression in hypothalamic cells.

Fatty acids regulate food intake, although the exact mechanism remains unknown. Emerging evidence suggests that intracellular free fatty acids generated by starvation-induced autophagy regulate food intake. Starvation for 6 h elevated fatty acids such as palmitate, oleate, arachidonate, eicosatrienoate, and docosahexaenoate in the mouse serum. Among them, palmitate induced lipophagy, an autophagic degradation of cellular lipid droplets, in agouti-related peptide (Agrp)-expressing hypothalamic cells. Palmitate-induced lipophagy increased both Agrp expression and the contents of monounsaturated fatty acids such as palmitoleate, oleate, and (E)-9-octadecanoate, whereas these effects were blunted by autophagy deficiency. These findings support the role of free fatty acids in hypothalamic autophagy that regulates the appetite by changing the expression of orexigenic neuropeptides.

ANTI-VIRAL EFFECT OF HERBAL MEDICINE KOREAN TRADITIONAL CYNANCHUM PANICULATUM (BGE.) KITAG EXTRACTS.

BACKGROUND: Pestiviruses in general, and Bovine Viral Diarrhea (BVD) in particular, present several potential targets for directed antiviral therapy. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The antiviral effect of Cynanchum paniculatum (Bge.) Kitag (Dog strangling vine: DS) extract on the bovine viral diarrhea (BVD) virus was tested. First, a cytotoxicity test in MDBK (Madin-Darby bovine kidney) cells was done with all organic extract concentrations. RESULTS: The cytotoxic concentration CC50 for the ethyl acetate (EA) extracts was 18.2 ug/ml. In the tissue culture, infectious dose (TCID50) assay, the BVD virus decreased when treated with 18.2 ug/ml of the ethyl acetate extracts. CONCLUSION: Ethyl acetate extracts and fractions of the DS extract could be used as a potential antiviral for BVD.