High sensitivity and low-cost flavin luciferase (FLUXVc)-based reporter gene for mammalian cell expression.

Luciferase-based gene reporters generating bioluminescence signals are important tools for biomedical research. Amongst the luciferases, flavin-dependent enzymes use the most economical chemicals. However, their applications in mammalian cells are limited due to their low signals compared to other systems. Here, we constructed Flavin Luciferase from Vibrio campbellii (Vc) for Mammalian Cell Expression (FLUXVc) by engineering luciferase from V. campbellii (the most thermostable bacterial luciferase reported to date) and optimizing its expression and reporter assays in mammalian cells which can improve the bioluminescence light output by >400-fold as compared to the nonengineered version. We found that the FLUXVc reporter gene can be overexpressed in various cell lines and showed outstanding signal-to-background in HepG2 cells, significantly higher than that of firefly luciferase (Fluc). The combined use of FLUXVc/Fluc as target/control vectors gave the most stable signals, better than the standard set of Fluc(target)/Rluc(control). We also demonstrated that FLUXVc can be used for testing inhibitors of the NF-κB signaling pathway. Collectively, our results provide an optimized method for using the more economical flavin-dependent luciferase in mammalian cells.

Bioluminescence of (R)-Cypridina Luciferin with Cypridina Luciferase.

Cypridina luciferin (CypL) is a marine natural product that functions as the luminous substrate for the enzyme Cypridina luciferase (CypLase). CypL has two enantiomers, (R)- and (S)-CypL, due to its one chiral center at the sec-butyl moiety. Previous studies reported that (S)-CypL or racemic CypL with CypLase produced light, but the luminescence of (R)-CypL with CypLase has not been investigated. Here, we examined the luminescence of (R)-CypL, which had undergone chiral separation from the enantiomeric mixture, with a recombinant CypLase. Our luminescence measurements demonstrated that (R)-CypL with CypLase produced light, indicating that (R)-CypL must be considered as the luminous substrate for CypLase, as in the case of (S)-CypL, rather than a competitive inhibitor for CypLase. Additionally, we found that the maximum luminescence intensity from the reaction of (R)-CypL with CypLase was approximately 10 fold lower than that of (S)-CypL with CypLase, but our kinetic analysis of CypLase showed that the Km value of CypLase for (R)-CypL was approximately 3 fold lower than that for (S)-CypL. Furthermore, the chiral high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of the reaction mixture of racemic CypL with CypLase showed that (R)-CypL was consumed more slowly than (S)-CypL. These results indicate that the turnover rate of CypLase for (R)-CypL was lower than that for (S)-CypL, which caused the less efficient luminescence of (R)-CypL with CypLase.

Chemical Mechanism of Fireworm Bioluminescence - A Theoretical Proposition.

Odontosyllis undecimdonta is a marine worm, commonly known as a fireworm, that exhibits bluish-green bioluminescence (BL). The luciferin (L) and oxyluciferin (OL) during fireworm BL have been experimentally identified in vitro. The L and OL are the respective starting point and ending point of a series of complicated chemical reactions in the BL. However, the chemical mechanism of the fireworm BL remains largely unknown. Before the experiments provided strong evidence for the mechanism, based on our previously successful studies on several bioluminescent systems, we theoretically proposed the chemical mechanism of the fireworm BL in this article. By means of the spin-flip and time-dependent density functional calculations, we clearly described the complete process from L to OL: under the catalysis of luciferase, L undergoes deprotonation and reacts with 3O2 to form a dioxetanone anion via the single-electron transfer mechanism; the dioxetanone anion decomposes into the OL at the first singlet excited state (S1) by the gradually reversible charge-transfer-induced luminescence mechanism; and the S1-OL emits light and deexcites to OL in the ground state.

Luciferin Synthesis and Pesticide Detection by Luminescence Enzymatic Cascades.

D-Luciferin (D-LH2 ), a substrate of firefly luciferase (Fluc), is important for a wide range of bioluminescence applications. This work reports a new and green method using enzymatic reactions (HELP, HadA Enzyme for Luciferin Preparation) to convert 19 phenolic derivatives to 8 D-LH2 analogues with ≈51 % yield. The method can synthesize the novel 5'-methyl-D-LH2 and 4',5'-dimethyl-D-LH2 , which have never been synthesized or found in nature. 5'-Methyl-D-LH2 emits brighter and longer wavelength light than the D-LH2 . Using HELP, we further developed LUMOS (Luminescence Measurement of Organophosphate and Derivatives) technology for in situ detection of organophosphate pesticides (OPs) including parathion, methyl parathion, EPN, profenofos, and fenitrothion by coupling the reactions of OPs hydrolase and Fluc. The LUMOS technology can detect these OPs at parts per trillion (ppt) levels. The method can directly detect OPs in food and biological samples without requiring sample pretreatment.

In Vivo Simultaneous Analysis of Gene Expression by Dual-Color Luciferases in Caenorhabditis elegans.

Both fluorescent and luminescent observation are widely used to examine real-time gene expression patterns in living organisms. Several fluuorescent and luminescent proteins with specific optical properties have been developed and applied for simultaneous, multi-color observation of more than two gene expression profiles. Compared to fluorescent proteins, however, the application of multi-color luminescent imaging in living organisms is still limited. In this study, we introduced two-color luciferases into the soil nematode C. elegans and performed simultaneous analysis of two gene expression profiles. Using a green-emitting luciferase Eluc (emerald luciferase) and red-emitting luciferase SLR (stable luciferase red), the expression patterns of two genes were simultaneously observed in single animals from embryonic to adult stages over its whole life span. In addition, dual gene activities were observed at the single embryo level, with the simultaneous observation of morphological changes. These are the first application of a two-color luciferase system into a whole animal and suggest that precise relationship of expression patterns of multiple genes of interest can be analyzed over the whole life of the animal, dependent on the changes in genetic and/or environmental conditions.

Mechanically Assisted Bioluminescence with Natural Luciferase.

Mechanochemical analogues have recently been established for several enzymatic reactions, but they require periodic interruption of the reaction for sampling, dissolution, and (bio)chemical analysis to monitor their progress. By applying a mechanochemical procedure to induce bioluminescence analogous to that used by the marine ostracod Cypridina (Vargula) hilgendorfii, here we demonstrate that the light emitted by a bioluminescent reaction can be used to directly monitor the progress of a mechanoenzymatic reaction without sampling. Mechanical treatment of Cypridina luciferase with luciferin generates bright blue light which can be readily detected and analyzed spectroscopically. This mechanically assisted bioluminescence proceeds through a mechanism identical to that of bioluminescence in solution, but has higher activation energy due to being diffusion-controlled in the viscous matrix. The results suggest that luciferases could be used as light-emissive reporters of mechanoenzymatic reactions.

Novel application of Macrolampis sp2 firefly luciferase for intracellular pH-biosensing in mammalian cells.

Bioluminescence is widely used in biosensors. Firefly luciferase-based bioluminescent sensors are among the most popular ones. Firefly luciferases are pH-sensitive, displaying a large red shift at acidic pH, a property that has been considered undesirable for most applications. Currently, biosensors that can detect intracellular pH are in demand, and some fluorescent biosensors are available. However, pH sensors using bioluminescence have not been used yet. Thus, we decided to harness a firefly luciferase to measure the intracellular pH in mammalian cells. For this purpose, we engineered the luciferase derived from Macrolampis sp2 firefly to localize it on the cytosol or nucleus, in order to observe pH variation in these compartments during biological activities. We first calibrated the emission ratios (R = Igreen/Ired) at different pH values. As expected, we observed a red shift of light emission under acidic conditions when the cells were subjected to different pH conditions in the presence of the K+/H+ ionophore, nigericin. Based on these results, we concluded that this firefly luciferase can be used as a diagnostic tool for measuring the intracellular pH variation in pathogenic cells or in cells during apoptosis. This is the first example of real time-monitoring of pH change using color tuning luciferase.

A Chemo-Enzymatic Cascade for the Smart Detection of Nitro- and Halogenated Phenols.

The flavin-dependent monooxygenase, HadA, catalyzes the dehalogenation and denitration of the toxicants, nitro- and halogenated phenols, to benzoquinone. The HadA reaction can be applied in one-pot reactions towards the de novo synthesis of d-luciferin by coupling with d-Cys condensation. d-luciferin, a valuable chemical widely used in biomedical applications, can be used as a substrate for the reaction of firefly luciferase to generate bioluminescence. As nitro- and halogenated phenols are key indicators of human overexposure to pesticides and pesticide contamination, the technology provides a sensitive and convenient tool for improved biomedical and environmental detection at ppb sensitivity in biological samples without the requirement for any pre-treatment. This dual-pronged method combines the advantages of waste biodetoxification to produce a valuable chemical as well as a smart detection tool for environmental and biomedical detection.

A Novel Dual-Color Luciferase Reporter Assay for Simultaneous Detection of Estrogen and Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Activation.

Consumers are exposed to a plethora of anthropogenic and natural substances that can act as agonists or antagonists for various transcription factors. Depending on the exposure and potency, such interactions can potentially lead to adverse health effects, particularly for substances with multiple molecular targets. The early detection of such interactions is thus of high toxicological interest. Here, we report on the development of a new cellular dual-color reporter assay that allows for time-resolved and quantitative recording of estrogen receptor (ER) and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) activation in living cells. Both receptors are known for their ligand promiscuity. Moreover, both receptor signaling pathways are interconnected by direct protein-protein interactions as well as by shared protein factors and the competition for ligands. The assay is based on two rare beetle luciferases that emit light in the red (SLR) and green (ELuc) spectrum and that have been stably inserted into human T-47D mammary carcinoma cells. The corresponding cell line is termed "XEER" and has been successfully subjected to proof-of-principle studies using prototypical ER and AHR ligands as well as various phytochemicals, xenobiotics, and extracts from various plastic products.

Efficient production of glycosylated Cypridina luciferase using plant cells.

Cypridina noctiluca luciferase has been utilized for biochemical and molecular biological applications, including bioluminescent enzyme immunoassays, far-red luminescence imaging, and high-throughput reporter assays. Some of these applications require a large amount of purified luciferase. However, conventional protein expression systems are not capable of producing sufficient quantities of protein with a high quality and purity without laborious and costly purification processes. To improve the productivity and expand the breadth of possibilities for Cypridina luciferase applications, we employed a variety of secretion expression systems, including yeast, mammalian cells, and silk worms. In this study, we established a simple production procedure using plant cell cultures. The plant cell culture BY-2 efficiently secreted luciferase, which was easily purified using a simple one-step ion-exchange chromatography method. The production yield was 20-30 mg of luciferase per liter of culture medium, and its Km for the luciferin (0.45 µM) was similar to that of the native protein. Additionally, we characterized its glycosylation pattern and confirmed that the two potential N-glycosylation sites were modified with plant-type oligosaccharide chains. Interestingly, the oligosaccharide chains could be trimmed without any detectable decrease in recombinant protein activity. Therefore, the results of our study indicate that this method offers a more cost-effective production method for Cypridina luciferase than conventional methods.

Long-term ex vivo and in vivo monitoring of tumor progression by using dual luciferases.

We propose a new concept of tumor progression monitoring using dual luciferases in living animals to reduce stress for small animals and the cost of luciferin. The secreted Cypridina luciferase (CLuc) was used as an ex vivo indicator to continuously monitor tumor progression. On the other hand, the non-secreted firefly luciferase was used as an in vivo indicator to analyze the spatial distribution of the tumor at suitable time points indicated by CLuc. Thus, the new monitoring systems that use dual luciferases are available, allowing long-term bioluminescence imaging under minimal stress for the experimental animals.

Dual-color bioluminescence imaging assay using green- and red-emitting beetle luciferases at subcellular resolution.

Bioluminescence imaging is widely used to monitor cellular events, including gene expression in vivo and in vitro. Moreover, recent advances in luciferase technology have made possible imaging at the single-cell level. To improve the bioluminescence imaging system, we have developed a dual-color imaging system in which the green-emitting luciferase from a Brazilian click beetle (Emerald Luc, ELuc) and the red-emitting luciferase from a railroad worm (Stable Luciferase Red, SLR) were used as reporters, which were localized to the peroxisome and the nucleus, respectively. We clearly captured simultaneously the subcellular localization of ELuc in the peroxisome and SLR in the nucleus of a single cell using a high-magnification objective lens with 3-min exposure time without binning using a combination of optical filters. Furthermore, to apply this system to quantitative time-lapse imaging, the activation of nuclear factor triggered by tumor necrosis factor α was measured using nuclear-targeted SLR and peroxisome-targeted ELuc as the test and internal control reporters, respectively. We successfully quantified the kinetics of activation of nuclear factor κB using nuclear-targeted SLR and the transcriptional change of the internal control promoter using peroxisome-targeted ELuc simultaneously in a single cell, and showed that the activation kinetics, including activation rate and amplitude, differed among cells. The results demonstrated that this imaging system can visualize the subcellular localization of reporters and track the expressions of two genes simultaneously at subcellular resolution.

Analysis of proteins showing differential changes during ATP oscillations in chondrogenesis.

Prechondrogenic condensation is a critical step for skeletal pattern formation. Our previous study showed that ATP oscillations play an essential role in prechondrogenic condensation because they induce oscillatory secretion. However, the molecular mechanisms that underlie ATP oscillations remain poorly understood. We examined how differential changes in proteins are implicated in ATP oscillations during chondrogenesis by using liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. Our analysis showed that a number of proteins involved in ATP synthesis/consumption, catabolic/anabolic processes, actin dynamics, cell migration and adhesion were detected at either the peak or the trough of ATP oscillations, which implies that these proteins have oscillatory expression patterns that are coupled to ATP oscillations. On the basis of the results, we suggest that (1) the oscillatory expression of proteins involved in ATP synthesis/consumption and catabolic/anabolic processes can contribute to the generation or maintenance of ATP oscillations and that (2) the oscillatory expression of proteins involved in actin dynamics, cell migration and adhesion plays key roles in prechondrogenic condensation by inducing collective adhesion and migration in cooperation with ATP oscillations.

Simultaneous monitoring of intracellular ATP and oxygen levels in chondrogenic differentiation using a dual-color bioluminescence reporter.

A number of assay methods which measure cellular metabolic activity have only measured intracellular ATP levels because it has been speculated that ATP production and oxygen consumption are obligatorily coupled to each other under normal conditions. However, there exist many cases in which ATP production and oxygen consumption are uncoupled. Therefore, measurement of only intracellular ATP levels has a limit for understanding the overall metabolic states during various cellular functions. Here, we report a novel system for simultaneously monitoring intracellular ATP and oxygen levels using a red-emitting Phrixothrix hirtus luciferase (PxRe) and a blue-emitting Renilla luciferase (Rluc). Using this system, we monitored the dynamic changes in both intracellular ATP and oxygen levels during chondrogenesis. We found that the oxygen level oscillated at twice the frequency of ATP in chondrogenesis and the oxygen oscillations have an antiphase mode to the ATP oscillations; we also found an independent mode for the ATP oscillations. This result indicates that both mitochondrial and non-mitochondrial respiration oscillate and thus play a role in chondrogenesis. This dual-color monitoring system is useful for studying metabolic regulations that underlie diverse cellular processes.

Expression of the nos gene and firefly flashing: a test of the nitric-oxide-mediated flash control model.

Fireflies (Coleoptera: Lampyridae) emit various types of light that differ among species and populations of the same species. Their lights are assumed to be biological properties that play important ecological and evolutionary roles. Some species in the Lampyridae emit periodic luminescence, the patterns of which are characterized by species-specific intervals. In previous work, it was predicted that the nitric oxide (NO) regulates the oxygen supply required for the bioluminescence reaction of fireflies. Here, the expression of the NO synthase (NOS) mRNA in some fireflies was examined to verify the predictive model of nitric-oxide-mediated flash control in these insects. The expression of the nos gene in the lantern organ was observed not only in nocturnal flashing species but also in diurnal non-flashing species. It was shown that the expression levels of nos were higher in the lantern of Luciola cruciata (Motschulsky) larvae, which that emits continuous light, than in other body parts, although expression in the lantern of the adults, who flash periodically, was not high. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in expression levels among adults of Luciola cruciata characterized by different flashing intervals. The data do not support the model of an NO-mediated flash control mechanism, during which oxygen becomes available for the luciferin-luciferase reaction through NO-mediated inhibition of mitochondrial respiration. It is also indicated that flash patterns do not co-vary with NOS production. However, high nos expression in the larval lantern suggests that NO may play a role in producing continuous light by functioning as a neurotransmitter signal for bioluminescence.

Monitoring circadian time in rat plasma using a secreted Cypridina luciferase reporter.

A firefly luciferase reporter enabled us to monitor promoter activity in vivo as well as ex vivo; however, this requires a sufficient supply of the substrate luciferin and specific monitoring devices. To overcome these disadvantages, we developed transgenic rats carrying a secreted enzyme Cypridina luciferase (CLuc) reporter under the promoter of clock gene Per2 (Per2-CLuc). Per2-CLuc activity in serially sampled blood from freely moving rats exhibited robust circadian rhythms with a peak at early morning. The Per2-CLuc bioluminescence could be quantified even with approximately 100pl of plasma. Plasma Per2-CLuc rhythms were phase reversed, and the level was reduced by restricting food access for 2h during the light phase, suggesting that the plasma Per2-CLuc rhythms reflect the phase of peripheral clocks entrained to feeding cues as well as fuel metabolism. Fasting for 2days did not alter the circadian Per2-CLuc rhythms in rats, suggesting that feeding per se did not affect the circadian Per2-CLuc rhythms. Tissue-specific Per2-CLuc rhythms were observed in culture medium of peripheral tissues. The Per2-CLuc reporter is a powerful tool to access gene expression in vivo as well as ex vivo with ordinary laboratory equipment.

Circadian-independent cell mitosis in immortalized fibroblasts.

Two prominent timekeeping systems, the cell cycle, which controls cell division, and the circadian system, which controls 24-h rhythms of physiology and behavior, are found in nearly all living organisms. A distinct feature of circadian rhythms is that they are temperature-compensated such that the period of the rhythm remains constant (approximately 24 h) at different ambient temperatures. Even though the speed of cell division, or growth rate, is highly temperature-dependent, the cell-mitosis rhythm is temperature-compensated. Twenty-four-hour fluctuations in cell division have also been observed in numerous species, suggesting that the circadian system is regulating the timing of cell division. We tested whether the cell-cycle rhythm was coupled to the circadian system in immortalized rat-1 fibroblasts by monitoring cell-cycle gene promoter-driven luciferase activity. We found that there was no consistent phase relationship between the circadian and cell cycles, and that the cell-cycle rhythm was not temperature-compensated in rat-1 fibroblasts. These data suggest that the circadian system does not regulate the cell-mitosis rhythm in rat-1 fibroblasts. These findings are inconsistent with numerous studies that suggest that cell mitosis is regulated by the circadian system in mammalian tissues in vivo. To account for this discrepancy, we propose two possibilities: (i) There is no direct coupling between the circadian rhythm and cell cycle but the timing of cell mitosis is synchronized with the rhythmic host environment, or (ii) coupling between the circadian rhythm and cell cycle exists in normal cells but it is disconnected in immortalized cells.

Dual-color-emitting green fluorescent protein from the sea cactus Cavernularia obesa and its use as a pH indicator for fluorescence microscopy.

We isolated and characterized a green fluorescent protein (GFP) from the sea cactus Cavernularia obesa. This GFP exists as a dimer and has absorption maxima at 388 and 498 nm. Excitation at 388 nm leads to blue fluorescence (456 nm maximum) at pH 5 and below, and green fluorescence (507 nm maximum) at pH 7 and above, and the GFP is remarkably stable at pH 4. Excitation at 498 nm leads to green fluorescence (507 nm maximum) from pH 5 to pH 9. We introduced five amino acid substitutions so that this GFP formed monomers rather than dimers and then used this monomeric form to visualize intracellular pH change during the phagocytosis of living cells by use of fluorescence microscopy. The intracellular pH change is visualized by use of a simple long-pass emission filter with single-wavelength excitation, which is technically easier to use than dual-emission fluorescent proteins that require dual-wavelength excitation.

Rapid methods of detecting the target molecule in immunohistology using a bioluminescence probe.

We demonstrate a novel rapid direct detection method for immunohistochemistry, using a bioluminescent probe. An anti-CEA antibody-fused far-red bioluminescent protein can monitor the accumulation of this type of probe in tumour tissues. The bimodal spectrum (λ(max) = 460 and 675 nm) of this bioluminescent probe is extremely stable under different conditions of pH and ion concentration. The sensitivity of our bioluminescent labelling was at the same level of enzymatic labelling, e.g. peroxidase, as an indirect system. Our novel technique is simple and can shorten the pretreatment time of paraffin sections to around 30 min. The utility of our bioluminescent labelling covers all imaging in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo, suggesting that our antibody-fused bioluminescent probe has the potential to detect tumour antigens with a high sensitivity in routine immune histological examinations.