Low evolutionary potential for blue-green egg colouration in a wild bird population.

Exploring the evolutionary architecture of female sexual traits and their potential evolvability is important to understand their possible role as post-mating sexual signals. Egg colouration has been proposed to be one of these post-mating sexual signals, honestly advertising female quality in birds, especially in blue-green laying species. In this study, we used an animal model in a Bayesian framework to estimate the evolvability of multiple descriptors of blue-green egg colouration and egg size in a wild long-term monitored population of spotless starlings (Sturnus unicolor). Our results show low to moderate heritability (h2 = 0.31 - 0.44) for three egg colour descriptors (blue-green chroma, chroma and lightness) and egg size. Using the coefficient of additive genetic variance (CVA) and the evolvability (IA) as proxies of evolutionary potential of all components of this trait, we found low values of CVA for all these variables, suggesting a small evolutionary potential of these phenotypic traits, contrasting to previous results reported in another blue-green egg laying species. Our results indicate a modest raw genetic material of this trait on which sexual selection can act upon and, therefore, a small probability for these traits to respond easily to selection.

The effect of environmental variation on the relationship between survival and risk-taking behaviour in a migratory songbird.

Temporal changes in environmental conditions may play a major role in the year-to-year variation in fitness consequences of behaviours. Identifying environmental drivers of such variation is crucial to understand the evolutionary trajectories of behaviours in natural contexts. However, our understanding of how environmental variation influences behaviours in the wild remains limited. Using data collected over 14 breeding seasons from a collared flycatcher (Ficedula albicollis) population, we examined the effect of environmental variation on the relationship between survival and risk-taking behaviour, a highly variable behavioural trait with great evolutionary and ecological significance. Specifically, using annual recapture probability as a proxy of survival, we evaluated the specific effect of predation pressure, food availability, and mean temperature on the relationship between annual recapture probability and risk-taking behaviour (measured as flight initiation distance [FID]). We found a negative trend, as the relationship between annual recapture probability and FID decreased over the study years and changed from positive to negative. Specifically, in the early years of the study, risk-avoiding individuals exhibited a higher annual recapture probability, whereas in the later years, risk-avoiders had a lower annual recapture probability. However, we did not find evidence that any of the considered environmental factors mediated the variation in the relationship between survival and risk-taking behaviour.

Seasonal and environmental factors contribute to the variation in the gut microbiome: A large-scale study of a small bird.

Environmental variation can shape the gut microbiome, but broad/large-scale data on among and within-population heterogeneity in the gut microbiome and the associated environmental factors of wild populations is lacking. Furthermore, previous studies have limited taxonomical coverage, and knowledge about wild avian gut microbiomes is still scarce. We investigated large-scale environmental variation in the gut microbiome of wild adult great tits across the species' European distribution range. We collected fecal samples to represent the gut microbiome and used the 16S rRNA gene sequencing to characterize the bacterial gut microbiome. Our results show that gut microbiome diversity is higher during winter and that there are compositional differences between winter and summer gut microbiomes. During winter, individuals inhabiting mixed forest habitat show higher gut microbiome diversity, whereas there was no similar association during summer. Also, temperature was found to be a small contributor to compositional differences in the gut microbiome. We did not find significant differences in the gut microbiome among populations, nor any association between latitude, rainfall and the gut microbiome. The results suggest that there is a seasonal change in wild avian gut microbiomes, but that there are still many unknown factors that shape the gut microbiome of wild bird populations.

Genetic footprints of a rapid and large-scale range expansion: the case of cyclic common vole in Spain.

In the Anthropocene, many species are rapidly shifting their ranges in response to human-driven habitat modifications. Studying patterns and genetic signatures of range shifts helps to understand how species cope with environmental disturbances and predict future shifts in the face of global environmental change. We investigated the genetic signature of a contemporary wide-range expansion observed in the Iberian common vole Microtus arvalis asturianus shortly after a colonization event. We used mtDNA and microsatellite data to investigate patterns of genetic diversity, structure, demography, and gene flow across 57 localities covering the historical range of the species and the newly colonized area. The results showed a genetic footprint more compatible with a true range expansion (i.e. the colonization of previously unoccupied areas), than with a model of "colonization from within" (i.e. local expansions from small, unnoticed populations). Genetic diversity measures indicated that the source population was likely located at the NE of the historical range, with a declining gradient of genetic diversity towards the more recently invaded areas. At the expansion front, we observed the greatest gene flow and smallest pairwise differences between nearby localities. Both natural landscape features (rivers) and recent anthropogenic barriers (roads, railways) explained a large proportion of genetic variance among populations and had a significant impact on the colonization pathways used by voles.

Population differences in the length and early-life dynamics of telomeres among European pied flycatchers.

Telomere length and shortening rate are increasingly being used as biomarkers for long-term costs in ecological and evolutionary studies because of their relationships with survival and fitness. Both early-life conditions and growth, and later-life stressors can create variation in telomere shortening rate. Studies on between-population telomere length and dynamics are scarce, despite the expectation that populations exposed to varying environmental constraints would present divergent telomere length patterns. The pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca) is a passerine bird breeding across Eurasia (from Spain to western Siberia) and migrating through the Iberian Peninsula to spend the nonbreeding period in sub-Saharan Africa. Thus, different populations show marked differences in migration distance. We studied the large-scale variation of telomere length and early-life dynamics in the pied flycatcher by comparing six European populations across a north-south gradient (Finland, Estonia, England and Spain) predicting a negative effect of migration distance on adult telomere length, and of nestling growth on nestling telomere dynamics. There were clear population differences in telomere length, with English birds from midlatitudes having the longest telomeres. Telomere length did not thus show consistent latitudinal variation and was not linearly linked to differences in migration distance. Early-life telomere shortening rate tended to vary between populations. Fast growth was associated with shorter telomeres in the early life, but faster nestling growth affected telomeres more negatively in northern than southern populations. While the sources of between-population differences in telomere-related biology remain to be more intensively studied, our study illustrates the need to expand telomere studies at the between-population level.

Phenotypic selection on an ornamental trait is not modulated by breeding density in a pied flycatcher population.

Most studies of phenotypic selection in the wild have focussed on morphological and life-history traits and looked at abiotic (climatic) variation as the main driver of selection. Consequently, our knowledge of the effects of biotic environmental variation on phenotypic selection on sexual traits is scarce. Population density can be considered a proxy for the intensity of intrasexual and intersexual competition and could therefore be a key factor influencing the covariation between individual fitness and the expression of sexual traits. Here, we used an individual-based data set from a population of pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca) monitored over 24 years to analyze the effect of breeding density on phenotypic selection on dorsal plumage colouration, a heritable and sexually selected ornament in males of this species. Using the number of recruits as a fitness proxy, our results showed overall stabilizing selection on male dorsal colouration, with intermediate phenotypes being favoured over extremely dark and dull individuals. However, our results did not support the hypothesis that breeding density mediates phenotypic selection on this sexual trait. We discuss the possible role of other biotic factors influencing selection on ornamental plumage.

Fluctuating selection driven by global and local climatic conditions leads to stasis in breeding time in a migratory bird.

The origin of natural selection is linked to environmental heterogeneity, which influences variation in relative fitness among phenotypes. However, individuals in wild populations are exposed to a plethora of biotic and abiotic environmental factors. Surprisingly, the relative influence of multiple environmental conditions on the relative fitness of phenotypes has rarely been tested in wild populations. Identifying the main selection agent(s) is crucial when the target phenotype is tightly linked to reproduction and when temporal variation in selection is expected to affect evolutionary responses. By using individual-based data from a 29-year study of a short-lived migratory songbird, the pied flycatcher (Ficedula hypoleuca), we studied the relative influence of 28 temperature- and precipitation-based factors at local and global scales on selection on breeding time (egg laying) at the phenotypic level. Selection, estimated using the number of recruits as a proxy for fitness, penalized late breeders. Minimum temperatures in April and May were the environmental drivers that best explained selection on laying date. In particular, there was negative directional selection on laying date mediated by minimum temperature in April, being strongest in cold years. In addition, nonlinear selection on laying date was influenced by minimum temperatures in May, with selection on laying date changing from null to negative as the breeding season progressed. The intensity of selection on late breeders increased when minimum temperatures in May were highest. Our results illustrate the complex influence of environmental factors on selection on laying date in wild bird populations. Despite minimum temperature in April being the only variable that changed over time, its increase did not induce a shift in laying date in the population. In this songbird population, stabilizing selection has led to a three-decade stasis in breeding time. We suggest that variation in the effects of multiple climatic variables on selection may constrain phenotypic change.

Insights into population ecology from long-term studies of red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus.

Long-term studies have been the backbone of population ecology. The red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus is one species that has contributed widely to this field since the 1950s. This paper reviews the trajectory and profound impact that these studies have had. Red grouse research has combined long-term studies of marked individuals with demographic studies over wide geographical areas and replicated individual- and population-level manipulations. A main focus has been on understanding the causes of population cycles in red grouse, and in particular the relative importance of intrinsic (behaviour) and extrinsic (climate, food limitation and parasite) mechanisms. Separate studies conducted in different regions initially proposed either the nematode parasite Trichostrongylus tenuis or changes in male aggressiveness in autumn as drivers of population cycles. More recent experiments suggest that parasites are not a necessary cause for cycles and have highlighted that behavioural and parasite-mediated mechanisms are interrelated. Long-term experiments show that parasites and aggressiveness interact. Two outstanding questions remain to be tested experimentally. First, what intrinsic mechanism causes temporal variation in patterns of male aggressiveness? The current favoured mechanism is related to patterns of kin structuring although there are alternative hypotheses. Second, how do the dual, interacting mechanisms, affect population dynamics? Red grouse studies have had an important impact on the field of population ecology, in particular through highlighting: (1) the impact of parasites on populations; (2) the role of intrinsic mechanisms in cyclic dynamics and (3) the need to consider multiple, interacting mechanisms.

Environmental conditions influence host-parasite interactions and host fitness in a migratory passerine.

The study of host-parasite co-evolution is a central topic in evolutionary ecology. However, research is still fragmented and the extent to which parasites influence host life history is debated. One reason for this incomplete picture is the frequent omission of environmental conditions in studies analyzing host-parasite dynamics, which may influence the exposure to or effects of parasitism. To contribute to elucidating the largely unresolved question of how environmental conditions are related to the prevalence and intensity of infestation and their impact on hosts, we took advantage of 25 years of monitoring of a breeding population of pied flycatchers, Ficedula hypoleuca, in a Mediterranean area of central Spain. We investigated the influence of temperature and precipitation during the nestling stage at a local scale on the intensity of blowfly (Protocalliphora azurea) parasitism during the nestling stage. In addition, we explored the mediating effect of extrinsic and intrinsic factors and blowfly parasitism on breeding success (production of fledglings) and offspring quality (nestling mass on day 13). The prevalence and intensity of blowfly parasitism were associated with different intrinsic (host breeding date, brood size) and extrinsic (breeding habitat, mean temperature) factors. Specifically, higher average temperatures during the nestling phase were associated with lower intensities of parasitism, which may be explained by changes in blowflies' activity or larval developmental success. In contrast, no relationship was found between the prevalence of parasitism and any of the environmental variables evaluated. Hosts that experienced high parasitism intensities in their broods produced more fledglings as temperature increased, suggesting that physiological responses to severe parasitism during nestling development might be enhanced in warmer conditions. The weight of fledglings was, however, unrelated to the interactive effect of parasitism intensity and environmental conditions. Overall, our results highlight the temperature dependence of parasite-host interactions and the importance of considering multiple fitness indicators and climate-mediated effects to understand their complex implications for avian fitness and population dynamics.

High diversity, novel genotypes, and vertical transmission of hemotropic Mycoplasma in micromammals.

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas) are emerging zoonotic pathogens. Micromammals have received little attention as hosts for hemoplasmas despite their ubiquitous presence, high population abundances, and close association with humans. A PCR protocol targeting a fragment of the 16 S rRNA gene and direct sequencing in blood samples of 189 adult specimens and 35 fetuses belonging to three species of Eulipotyphla (shrews) and seven species of Rodentia, captured in three ecologically diverse habitats in North-Eastern Spain (Steppe, High Mountain, Mediterranean) yielded and occurrence of 26%, including 36% of 39 shrews and 23% of 150 rodents. Sequencing revealed the presence of 14 nucleotide sequence types (ntST) among the 56 readable sequences. In general, each ntST was associated with a given host species, although in some cases, the same ntST was sequenced in different species (chiefly rodents). Most ntST were closely related to rodent and/or bat hemoplasmas, but one was identical with Mycoplasma haemocanis/haemofelis, and others can be considered novel genotypes. High sequence diversity was detected in rodents, whereas in the white-toothed shrew (Crocidura russula), 9/11 sequences from two distant areas were identical. Phylogenetic and network analyses classified our sequences in different clades including hemoplasmas of rodents, carnivores, bats, and humans. Twelve of the fetuses (34.2%) of 9/12 litters (75.0%) of shrews and rodents were hemoplasma-positive, indicating frequent vertical transmission. Our study contributes to expanding our knowledge about the distribution, diversity, and transmission of hemoplasmas.

My Reasons for Living: A Descriptive Study of the Motives for Not Committing Suicide Among Patients Diagnosed With Schizophrenia.

Background and objective Reasons for Living (RFL) constitute a construct that enables identifying the reasons for not committing suicide. These reasons are based on significant aspects of life, on the commitment to some ideals which may inhibit the impulse of committing suicide. The present study aimed to explore the RFL in a sample of patients with chronic schizophrenia; analyze the association of RFL with the duration of illness, previous suicide attempts, hospitalizations, and schooling; and describe the potential differences between male and female patients in this context. Materials and methods A total of 94 patients with schizophrenia were assessed. The Reasons for Living Inventory (RFLI) was applied and a structured interview for clinical and sociodemographic data was performed to gather data. Frequencies and descriptive statistics were calculated, and Spearman's correlation analysis was employed. Results The mean score among the sample was 3.9, with 3.8 as the cut-off point under which the presence of suicide risk is significant. The RFLs indicated as most important by patients were those in the domains of Survival and Coping Beliefs and Responsibility to Family. Non-significant differences were observed between groups. An association was observed in terms of age, duration of illness, number of hospitalizations, and RFLI scores. Conclusions The sample in the present study obtained high scores in the RFL domain of Survival and Coping Beliefs and low scores in the domain of Fear of Suicide, reflecting a specific response pattern that contrasts with other high suicidal-risk populations. We suggest that this construct could represent a protective factor for schizophrenia patients, including chronic patients with previous suicide attempts and high hospitalization rates, which were common variables observed in our clinical sample.

Complete Chloroplast Genome Sequence of the Western Poison Oak, Toxicodendron diversilobum (Anacardiaceae), from California.

Here, we present the complete chloroplast genome sequence of Toxicodendron diversilobum, western poison oak, from Pacific Grove, California. The genome is 159,543 bp in length, contains 133 genes, and has a high level of gene synteny to other species of Toxicodendron.

Temperature synchronizes temporal variation in laying dates across European hole-nesting passerines.

Identifying the environmental drivers of variation in fitness-related traits is a central objective in ecology and evolutionary biology. Temporal fluctuations of these environmental drivers are often synchronized at large spatial scales. Yet, whether synchronous environmental conditions can generate spatial synchrony in fitness-related trait values (i.e., correlated temporal trait fluctuations across populations) is poorly understood. Using data from long-term monitored populations of blue tits (Cyanistes caeruleus, n = 31), great tits (Parus major, n = 35), and pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca, n = 20) across Europe, we assessed the influence of two local climatic variables (mean temperature and mean precipitation in February-May) on spatial synchrony in three fitness-related traits: laying date, clutch size, and fledgling number. We found a high degree of spatial synchrony in laying date but a lower degree in clutch size and fledgling number for each species. Temperature strongly influenced spatial synchrony in laying date for resident blue tits and great tits but not for migratory pied flycatchers. This is a relevant finding in the context of environmental impacts on populations because spatial synchrony in fitness-related trait values among populations may influence fluctuations in vital rates or population abundances. If environmentally induced spatial synchrony in fitness-related traits increases the spatial synchrony in vital rates or population abundances, this will ultimately increase the risk of extinction for populations and species. Assessing how environmental conditions influence spatiotemporal variation in trait values improves our mechanistic understanding of environmental impacts on populations.

Parasitized mates increase infection risk for partners.

Individuals can gain fitness benefits and costs through their mates. However, studies on sexual selection have tended to focus on genetic benefits. A potentially widespread cost of pairing with a parasitized mate is that doing so will increase an individual's parasite abundance. Such a cost has been overlooked in systems in which parasites are indirectly transmitted. We manipulated the abundance of the nematode parasite Trichostrongylus tenuis, an indirectly transmitted parasite, within pairs of wild red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus in spring. Parasite levels were correlated within pairs before the experiment. We removed parasites from males, females, or both members of the pair and evaluated individual parasite uptake over the subsequent breeding period. At the end of the breeding season, an individual's parasite abundance was greater when its mate had not been initially purged of parasites. This cost appeared to be greater for males. We discuss the implications of our results in relation to the costs that parasites may have on sexual selection processes.

Social context decouples the relationship between a sexual ornament and testosterone levels in a male wild bird.

In order to maximise fitness individuals should adjust their level of signalling according to their surrounding social environment. However, field experiments showing such adjustment of current signalling associated to changes in social context are lacking. Here, we manipulated levels of male aggressive- and dominance-related displays in a wild bird in our treated area by increasing testosterone levels using implants in a subset of males. We then compared the expression of sexual signals (i.e. comb size) between non-treated red grouse Lagopus lagopus scoticus males from control and treatment areas. We further explored the potential endocrinological mechanism linking social environment and signal expression by analysing testosterone levels in all males. Our treatment successfully increased overall aggressive- and dominance-related behaviours in the treatment area. Furthermore, testosterone-implanted birds increased their comb size as repeatedly shown in previous studies in male red grouse. Interestingly, untreated males living in the treatment area decreased their comb size, whilst increasing testosterone levels. Since comb size is a signal of dominance, untreated males from the treatment area may have perceived themselves as subordinate individuals and decreased their signalling levels to avoid confrontations with testosterone-treated, dominant individuals. In conclusion, our findings show that social context has the potential to regulate sexual signalling and testosterone levels. Our results highlight the role of social context when exploring the link between testosterone and behaviour, as it may reverse the relationship between both traits. Our results suggest that social context affects signalling and testosterone independently.

An App about Healthy Habits as an Educational Resource during the Pandemic.

Educational institutions and their agents play a fundamental role in improving people's health literacy and quality of life. We intend here to describe and justify an educational resource embodied in an application for mobile devices developed through a subsidized project by the Ministry of Health (Government of Andalusia); the purpose of this app is to educate young people in healthy habits. The application was designed to be easily used in both smartphones and tablets with the aim of achieving good physical, psychological and social health. The project comprises several phases and the results we have so far show that, from an early age, health institutions and educational settings must work in partnership, increasing health literacy levels. This cooperative work combined with the use of this innovative approach presents an important potential for change in the lifestyles of younger generations. This type of intervention took on a special role in the pandemic context, allowing for the maintenance of the educational stimulus in a safe context.

High frequency of social polygyny reveals little costs for females in a songbird.

Mating system theory predicts that social polygyny-when one male forms pair bonds with two females-may evolve by female choice in species with biparental care. Females will accept a polygynous male if the benefit of mating with a male providing high-quality genes or rearing resources outweighs the cost of sharing mate assistance in parental care. Based on this rationale, we hypothesise that the population frequency of social polygyny (FSP) varies due to changes in mate sharing costs caused by changing environmental conditions. We predicted that: (1) polygamous females (i.e. mated with a polygynous male) pay a survival cost compared to monogamous females; (2) FSP would be higher in years with better rearing conditions and (3) the difference in survival rates between monogamous and polygamous females would be small following years with higher FSP. We tested these predictions using regression and multistate analyses of capture-recapture data of pied flycatchers, Ficedula hypoleuca, in central Spain collected over 26 years (1990-2016). Monogamous females had a higher mean survival rate than polygamous females (prediction 1), but there was no difference in survival between polygynous and monogamous males. In addition, FSP was positively associated with annual reproductive success (a proxy of the quality of rearing conditions-prediction 2). Finally, following years with high FSP, the survival of polygamous females was similar to that of monogamous females (prediction 3), while the chance of breeding in a polygamous state for 2 years in a row increased for both males and females. Our findings suggest that fluctuating environmental conditions may be a necessary but neglected aspect of understanding social polygyny mechanisms.

Psychometric Properties of a Questionnaire to Assess Spanish Primary School Teachers' Perceptions about Their Preparation for Inclusive Education.

Inclusive education is a right and must be offered to all students, including those with disabilities, providing them with individualized educational attention and support. Teachers play a leading role in the inclusive education process, their preparation and attitudes being essential for this process. This study aimed to present the factor structure and reliability of a questionnaire for the assessment of teachers' perceptions about their preparation to support inclusive education. The sample consisted of 605 Spanish primary school teachers who responded to the Evaluation of Teachers' Inclusion Readiness (CEFI-R) Questionnaire. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis and reliability evaluation were performed. The results showed a factor structure with four dimensions (Conception of Diversity, Methodology, Supports and Community Participation), composed of 17 items, with good and excellent goodness-of-fit values and high reliability (Cronbach's Alpha = 0.75-0.94). Thus, the CEFI-R can be considered a quick and easy-to-apply tool to analyze primary school teachers' perceptions about their preparation to address their students' diversity of needs, allowing stakeholders to take actions to promote inclusive education.

Species-specific song responses emerge as a by-product of tuning to the local dialect.

Oscine birds preferentially respond to certain sounds over others from an early age, which focuses subsequent learning onto sexually relevant songs.1,2,3 Songs vary both across species and, due to cultural evolution, among populations of the same species. As a result, early song responses are expected to be shaped by selection both to avoid the fitness costs of cross-species learning4 and to promote learning of population-typical songs.5 These sources of selection are not mutually exclusive but can result in distinct geographic patterns of song responses in juvenile birds: if the risks of interspecific mating are the main driver of early song discrimination, then discrimination should be strongest where closely related species co-occur.4 In contrast, if early discrimination primarily facilitates learning local songs, then it should be tuned to songs typical of the local dialect.5,6,7 Here, we experimentally assess the drivers of song discrimination in nestling pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca). We first demonstrate that early discrimination against the songs of the closely related collared flycatcher (F. albicollis) is not strongly affected by co-occurrence. Second, across six European populations, we show that nestlings' early song responses are tuned to their local song dialect and that responses to the songs of collared flycatchers are similarly weak as to those of other conspecific dialects. Taken together, these findings provide clear experimental support for the hypothesis that cultural evolution, in conjunction with associated learning predispositions, drives the emergence of pre-mating reproductive barriers.

The Upshot of the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic on Nursing Assistants: Evaluating Mental Health Indicators in Huelva.

Healthcare professionals who work in front-line situations are among those under the highest risk of presenting negative mental health indicators. We sought to assess the prevalence of low personal realization, emotional exhaustion, and depersonalization as well as probable non-psychotic psychiatric pathologies during the pandemic in nursing assistants in the city of Huelva (Spain), and to study the association between these mental health indicators and sociodemographic and professional variables. A cross-sectional descriptive investigation with a quantitative approach was used. A representative sample of these professionals, consisting of 29 men and 284 women, completed the GHQ-12 questionnaire, including sociodemographic data and the MBI-HSS questionnaire, collecting information on situations of contact with SARS-CoV-2. Data analysis was conducted, and correlations were established. We found that emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and probable non-psychotic, psychiatric pathologies were related to contact with SARS-CoV-2. Moreover, personal realization, depersonalization and emotional exhaustion were related to just gender. We conclude that nursing assistants from public hospitals in the city of Huelva who had contact with patients with SARS-CoV-2 in the workplace, showed poor mental health indicators than those who did not come into contact with infected individuals.