Body Mass Index Is Independently Associated with the Presence of Ischemia in Myocardial Perfusion Imaging.

Background and Objectives: Obesity has been linked to various cardiovascular risk factors, increased incidence of coronary artery disease, and myocardial perfusion defects. The aim of this study was to investigate if body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) were associated with myocardial perfusion defects. Materials and Methods: A total of 308 consecutive patients who had myocardial perfusion imaging (MPI) with single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and a complete medical record on file were studied retrospectively. Results: The median age was 69 (61−76) years, the BMI was 27.6 (24.4−30.7) kg/m2, and the WC was 110 (102−118) cm. Of the 308 patients, 239 patients (77.6%) had myocardial ischemia. A positive test for ischemia was more frequent in men compared to women (72 vs. 28%, p < 0.001). Within the male group, BMI and WC were not significantly different between the ischemia and non-ischemia groups. In contrast, within the female group, both BMI (30.2 vs. 27.1 kg/m2, p = 0.002) and WC (112 vs. 105.5 cm, p = 0.020) were significantly higher in the ischemia group. Multivariable logistic regression showed that male sex and BMI were the only two independent predictors of ischemia in our patient population. Conclusions: This study showed that BMI was an independent predictor of ischemia in our patient population.

Virtual Functional Assessment of Coronary Stenoses Using Intravascular Ultrasound Imaging: A Proof-of-Concept Pilot Study.

AIMS: We aimed to investigate the performance of virtual functional assessment of coronary stenoses using intravascular ultrasound (IVUS)-based three-dimensional (3D) coronary artery reconstruction against the invasively measured fractional flow reserve (FFR). METHODS AND RESULTS: Twenty-two (22) patients with either typical symptoms of stable angina or a positive stress test, who underwent IVUS and FFR, were included in this study. Five (5) patients presented FFR values lower than the 0.80 threshold, indicating ischaemia. IVUS-based 3D reconstruction and blood flow simulation were performed and the virtual functional assessment index (vFAI) was calculated. A strong correlation between IVUS-based vFAI and FFR was observed (Spearman correlation coefficient [rs]=0.88, p<0.0001). There was a small overestimation of the FFR by the IVUS-based vFAI (mean difference=0.0196±0.037; p=0.023 for difference from zero). All cases with haemodynamically significant stenoses (FFR≤0.8) were correctly categorised by the IVUS-based vFAI (vFAI≤0.8). CONCLUSION: The proposed approach allows the complete and comprehensive assessment of coronary stenoses providing anatomic and physiologic information, pre- and post-intervention, using only an IVUS catheter without the use of a pressure wire.

Virtual Resting Pd/Pa From Coronary Angiography and Blood Flow Modelling: Diagnostic Performance Against Fractional Flow Reserve.

BACKGROUND: Fractional flow reserve (FFR) has been established as a useful diagnostic tool. The distal coronary pressure to aortic pressure (Pd/Pa) ratio at rest is a simpler physiologic index but also requires the use of the pressure wire, whereas recently proposed virtual functional indices derived from coronary imaging require complex blood flow modelling and/or are time-consuming. Our aim was to test the diagnostic performance of virtual resting Pd/Pa using routine angiographic images and a simple flow model. METHODS: Three-dimensional quantitative coronary angiography (3D-QCA) was performed in 139 vessels (120 patients) with intermediate lesions assessed by FFR. The resting Pd/Pa for each lesion was assessed by computational fluid dynamics. RESULTS: The discriminatory power of virtual resting Pd/Pa against FFR (reference: ≤0.80) was high (area under the receiver operator characteristic curve [AUC]: 90.5% [95% CI: 85.4-95.6%]). Diagnostic accuracy, sensitivity and specificity for the optimal virtual resting Pd/Pa cut-off (≤0.94) were 84.9%, 90.4% and 81.6%, respectively. Virtual resting Pd/Pa demonstrated superior performance (p<0.001) versus 3D-QCA %area stenosis (AUC: 77.5% [95% CI: 69.8-85.3%]). There was a good correlation between virtual resting Pd/Pa and FFR (r=0.69, p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Virtual resting Pd/Pa using routine angiographic data and a simple flow model provides fast functional assessment of coronary lesions without requiring the pressure-wire and hyperaemia induction. The high diagnostic performance of virtual resting Pd/Pa for predicting FFR shows promise for using this simple/fast virtual index in clinical practice.

Heterogeneity of Coronary Plaque Morphology and Natural History: Current Understanding and Clinical Significance.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Despite the important progress in identifying high-risk atherosclerotic plaques, many key elements are elusive. Advanced imaging modalities provide valuable information about the anatomic and functional plaque characteristics and underscore the presence of multiple plaque morphologies. However, how the heterogeneity of atherosclerotic plaque can alter our current understanding of coronary artery disease is not fully understood. RECENT FINDINGS: Along the length of an individual plaque, the morphology patterns display marked heterogeneity. Contrary to previous beliefs, plaque morphology is also highly dynamic over time, with the vast majority of high-risk plaques becoming quiescent and mild plaques becoming severely obstructive in a short period of time. Endothelial shear stress, a local hemodynamic factor known for its critical effects in plaque initiation and progression, also displays longitudinal heterogeneity contributing to the arterial wall response in all time points. Risk stratification of plaques based on the morphological characteristics at one region of the plaque, usually the minimal lumen diameter, and at one point in time may be misleading. The evaluation of both morphological and hemodynamic characteristics along the length of a plaque will improve the risk assessment of individual plaques.

Fibroblast growth factors in cardiovascular disease: The emerging role of FGF21.

Early detection of risk factors for enhanced primary prevention and novel therapies for treating the chronic consequences of cardiovascular disease are of the utmost importance for reducing morbidity. Recently, fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) have been intensively studied as potential new molecules in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular disease mainly attributable to metabolic effects and angiogenic actions. Members of the endocrine FGF family have been shown to increase metabolic rate, decrease adiposity, and restore glucose homeostasis, suggesting a multiple metabolic role. Serum levels of FGFs have been associated with established cardiovascular risk factors as well as with the severity and extent of coronary artery disease and could be useful for prediction of cardiovascular death. Furthermore, preclinical investigations and clinical trials have tested FGF administration for therapeutic angiogenesis in ischemic vascular disease, demonstrating a potential role in improving angina and limb function. FGF21 has lately emerged as a potent metabolic regulator with multiple effects that ultimately improve the lipoprotein profile. Early studies show that FGF21 is associated with the presence of atherosclerosis and may play a protective role against plaque formation by improving endothelial function. The present review highlights recent investigations suggesting that FGFs, in particular FGF21, may be useful as markers of cardiovascular risk and may also serve as protective/therapeutic agents in cardiovascular disease.

Thin-capped atheromata with reduced collagen content in pigs develop in coronary arterial regions exposed to persistently low endothelial shear stress.

OBJECTIVE: The mechanisms promoting the focal formation of rupture-prone coronary plaques in vivo remain incompletely understood. This study tested the hypothesis that coronary regions exposed to low endothelial shear stress (ESS) favor subsequent development of collagen-poor, thin-capped plaques. APPROACH AND RESULTS: Coronary angiography and 3-vessel intravascular ultrasound were serially performed at 5 consecutive time points in vivo in 5 diabetic, hypercholesterolemic pigs. ESS was calculated along the course of each artery with computational fluid dynamics at all 5 time points. At follow-up, 184 arterial segments with previously identified in vivo ESS underwent histopathologic analysis. Compared with other plaque types, eccentric thin-capped atheromata developed more in segments that experienced lower ESS during their evolution. Compared with lesions with higher preceding ESS, segments persistently exposed to low ESS (<1.2 Pa) exhibited reduced intimal smooth muscle cell content; marked intimal smooth muscle cell phenotypic modulation; attenuated procollagen-I gene expression; increased gene and protein expression of the interstitial collagenases matrix-metalloproteinase-1, -8, -13, and -14; increased collagenolytic activity; reduced collagen content; and marked thinning of the fibrous cap. CONCLUSIONS: Eccentric thin-capped atheromata, lesions particularly prone to rupture, form more frequently in coronary regions exposed to low ESS throughout their evolution. By promoting an imbalance of attenuated synthesis and augmented collagen breakdown, low ESS favors the focal evolution of early lesions toward plaques with reduced collagen content and thin fibrous caps-2 critical determinants of coronary plaque vulnerability.

Absolute zero-contrast percutaneous coronary interventions: An intravascular ultrasound-guided case series and literature review.

PURPOSE: Contrast media (CM)-associated adverse effects including mainly acute kidney injury and hypersensitivity reactions still remain a significant treatment burden to vulnerable patients requiring percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). The complete omission of CM administration accompanied by intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) guidance may offer an appropriate revascularization treatment. METHODS: We hereby present a case series of four patients with challenging coronary lesions and relative/absolute contraindications to CM use [(hypersensitivity reaction owning to CM, history of contrast-induced acute kidney injury, solitary kidney, or advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD)] who underwent absolute zero-contrast IVUS-guided PCI following a predetermined protocol. RESULTS: The initial diagnostic angiography was reviewed for landmark identification, and multiple guidewires created a metallic road map providing additional landmarks and protected side branches. IVUS imaging was performed to determine lesion length, reference segments and landing zones, assess stent expansion/apposition and identify major complications. All procedures were successfully completed without any CM administration, renal function deterioration, pericardial effusion, or stent edge dissection. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated the feasibility of absolute zero-contrast IVUS-guided PCI in patients with complex coronary lesions susceptible to CM-associated adverse effects. Since the safety of this strategy is well-documented in patients with CKD and challenging lesions morphology even in acute settings, evidence-based validation of this approach is capable of changing the otherwise conservative treatment of vulnerable patients where even minimum doses of CM may have detrimental effects. SUMMARY FOR THE ANNOTATED TABLE OF CONTENTS: Patients with vulnerable renal function as well as former hypersensitivity reaction to contrast media encounter a significant treatment burden regarding coronary artery disease. Zero-contrast IVUS-guided strategy based on a predetermined protocol provides a feasible alternative approach in patients susceptible to contrast media-associated adverse effects even in the presence of complex coronary lesions.

Virtual Hemodynamic Assessment of Coronary Lesions: The Advent of Functional Angiography and Coronary Imaging.

The fractional flow reserve (FFR) is well recognized as a gold standard measure for the estimation of functional coronary stenosis. Technological progressions in image processing have empowered the reconstruction of three-dimensional models of the coronary arteries via both non-invasive and invasive imaging modalities. The application of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques to coronary 3D anatomical models allows the virtual evaluation of the hemodynamic significance of a coronary lesion with high diagnostic accuracy. METHODS: Search of the bibliographic database for articles published from 2011 to 2023 using the following search terms: invasive FFR and non-invasive FFR. Pooled analysis of the sensitivity and specificity, with the corresponding confidence intervals from 32% to 94%. In addition, the summary processing times were determined. RESULTS: In total, 24 studies published between 2011 and 2023 were included, with a total of 13,591 patients and 3345 vessels. The diagnostic accuracy of the invasive and non-invasive techniques at the per-patient level was 89% (95% CI, 85-92%) and 76% (95% CI, 61-80%), respectively, while on the per-vessel basis, it was 92% (95% CI, 82-88%) and 81% (95% CI, 75-87%), respectively. CONCLUSION: These opportunities providing hemodynamic information based on anatomy have given rise to a new era of functional angiography and coronary imaging. However, further validations are needed to overcome several scientific and computational challenges before these methods are applied in everyday clinical practice.

Spontaneous Coronary Artery Dissection and COVID-19: A Review of the Literature.

SARS-CoV-2 is responsible for the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. While the cardiovascular effects of COVID-19 have been thoroughly described, there are limited published studies in the literature establishing a connection between spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD) and COVID-19. Cardiovascular manifestations include, among others, myocarditis, acute myocardial infraction, and thrombosis. In general, SCAD is an uncommon and underdiagnosed cause of acute myocardial infarction (AMI), particularly in younger women and in patients with underlying fibromuscular dysplasia (FMD). Many patients with SCAD often report significant emotional stress, especially in relation with job loss, during the week preceding their cardiac event. Moreover, the COVID-19 pandemic has led to societal stress and increased unemployment, factors that have been associated with cardiovascular morbidity. SCAD emerges as a rare manifestation of coronary artery disease, which a few recent case reports link to COVID-19. The aim of this article is to summarize the relevant data on the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and SCAD along with a review of the reported cases on acute coronary syndrome (ACS) following SARS-CoV2 infection and, thus, to provide insights about the relationship between COVID-19 and SCAD.

Prediction of progression of coronary artery disease and clinical outcomes using vascular profiling of endothelial shear stress and arterial plaque characteristics: the PREDICTION Study.

BACKGROUND: Atherosclerotic plaques progress in a highly individual manner. The purposes of the Prediction of Progression of Coronary Artery Disease and Clinical Outcome Using Vascular Profiling of Shear Stress and Wall Morphology (PREDICTION) Study were to determine the role of local hemodynamic and vascular characteristics in coronary plaque progression and to relate plaque changes to clinical events. METHODS AND RESULTS: Vascular profiling, using coronary angiography and intravascular ultrasound, was used to reconstruct each artery and calculate endothelial shear stress and plaque/remodeling characteristics in vivo. Three-vessel vascular profiling (2.7 arteries per patient) was performed at baseline in 506 patients with an acute coronary syndrome treated with a percutaneous coronary intervention and in a subset of 374 (74%) consecutive patients 6 to 10 months later to assess plaque natural history. Each reconstructed artery was divided into sequential 3-mm segments for serial analysis. One-year clinical follow-up was completed in 99.2%. Symptomatic clinical events were infrequent: only 1 (0.2%) cardiac death; 4 (0.8%) patients with new acute coronary syndrome in nonstented segments; and 15 (3.0%) patients hospitalized for stable angina. Increase in plaque area (primary end point) was predicted by baseline large plaque burden; decrease in lumen area (secondary end point) was independently predicted by baseline large plaque burden and low endothelial shear stress. Large plaque size and low endothelial shear stress independently predicted the exploratory end points of increased plaque burden and worsening of clinically relevant luminal obstructions treated with a percutaneous coronary intervention at follow-up. The combination of independent baseline predictors had a 41% positive and 92% negative predictive value to predict progression of an obstruction treated with a percutaneous coronary intervention. CONCLUSIONS: Large plaque burden and low local endothelial shear stress provide independent and additive prediction to identify plaques that develop progressive enlargement and lumen narrowing. CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRATION: URL: http:www.//clinicaltrials.gov. Unique Identifier: NCT01316159.

Patient-specific computational modeling of subendothelial LDL accumulation in a stenosed right coronary artery: effect of hemodynamic and biological factors.

Atherosclerosis is a systemic disease with local manifestations. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) accumulation in the subendothelial layer is one of the hallmarks of atherosclerosis onset and ignites plaque development and progression. Blood flow-induced endothelial shear stress (ESS) is causally related to the heterogenic distribution of atherosclerotic lesions and critically affects LDL deposition in the vessel wall. In this work we modeled blood flow and LDL transport in the coronary arterial wall and investigated the influence of several hemodynamic and biological factors that may regulate LDL accumulation. We used a three-dimensional model of a stenosed right coronary artery reconstructed from angiographic and intravascular ultrasound patient data. We also reconstructed a second model after restoring the patency of the stenosed lumen to its nondiseased state to assess the effect of the stenosis on LDL accumulation. Furthermore, we implemented a new model for LDL penetration across the endothelial membrane, assuming that endothelial permeability depends on the local lumen LDL concentration. The results showed that the presence of the stenosis had a dramatic effect on the local ESS distribution and LDL accumulation along the artery, and areas of increased LDL accumulation were observed in the downstream region where flow recirculation and low ESS were present. Of the studied factors influencing LDL accumulation, 1) hypertension, 2) increased endothelial permeability (a surrogate of endothelial dysfunction), and 3) increased serum LDL levels, especially when the new model of variable endothelial permeability was applied, had the largest effects, thereby supporting their role as major cardiovascular risk factors.

Cerebro-/Cardiovascular Collateral Damage During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Fact or Fiction?

Numerous observational studies have identified a decline in cerebro-/cardiovascular (CV) admissions during the initial phase of the COVID-19 pandemic. Recent studies and meta-analyses indicated that the overall decrease was smaller than that found in initial studies during the first months of 2020. Two years later we still do not have clear evidence about the potential causes and impacts of the reduction of CV hospitalizations during the COVID-19 pandemic. It has becoming increasingly evident that collateral damage (i.e., incidental damage to the public and patients) from the COVID-19 outbreak is the main underlying cause that at least somewhat reflects the effects of imposed measures such as social distancing and self-isolation. However, a smaller true decline in CV events in the community due to a lack of triggers associated with such acute syndromes cannot be excluded. There is currently indirect epidemiological evidence about the immediate impact that the collateral damage had on excess mortality, but possible late consequences including a rebound increase in CV events are yet to be observed. In the present narrative review, we present the reporting milestones in the literature of the rates of CV admissions and collateral damage during the last 2 years, and discuss all possible factors contributing to the decline in CV hospitalizations during the COVID-19 pandemic. Healthcare systems need to be prepared so that they can cope with the increased hospitalization rates for CV events in the near future.

Current Toolset in Predicting Acute Coronary Thrombotic Events: The "Vulnerable Plaque" in a "Vulnerable Patient" Concept.

Despite major advances in pharmacotherapy and interventional procedures, coronary artery disease (CAD) remains a principal cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Invasive coronary imaging along with the computation of hemodynamic forces, primarily endothelial shear stress and plaque structural stress, have enabled a comprehensive identification of atherosclerotic plaque components, providing a unique insight into the understanding of plaque vulnerability and progression, which may help guide patient treatment. However, the invasive-only approach to CAD has failed to show high predictive value. Meanwhile, it is becoming increasingly evident that along with the "vulnerable plaque", the presence of a "vulnerable patient" state is also necessary to precipitate an acute coronary thrombotic event. Non-invasive imaging techniques have also evolved, providing new opportunities for the identification of high-risk plaques, the study of atherosclerosis in asymptomatic individuals, and general population screening. Additionally, risk stratification scores, circulating biomarkers, immunology, and genetics also complete the armamentarium of a broader "vulnerable plaque and patient" concept approach. In the current review article, the invasive and non-invasive modalities used for the detection of high-risk plaques in patients with CAD are summarized and critically appraised. The challenges of the vulnerable plaque concept are also discussed, highlighting the need to shift towards a more interdisciplinary approach that can identify the "vulnerable plaque" in a "vulnerable patient".

Preventing and Managing Radial Artery Occlusion following Transradial Procedures: Strategies and Considerations.

Τransradial artery access has recently gained widespread acceptance as the preferred approach for coronary angiography and interventions, due to its lower incidence of bleeding and vascular complications compared to transfemoral access. However, thrombotic occlusion of the radial artery has emerged as the most common complication of this method, impeding its use in future interventions, and in the creation of arteriovenous fistulae for hemodialysis patients, or as a graft for coronary artery bypasses grafting. In this comprehensive review, we delve into the anatomy of the radial artery, the pathophysiology and diagnosis of radial artery occlusion, the identification of potential risk factors and, finally, prevention and treatment strategies. We acknowledge that distal transradial access provides an effective alternative for coronary angiography and catheterizations, with a reduced incidence of radial artery occlusion.

Role of FGF21 and Leptin for the Diagnosis of Metabolic Health in Children with and without Obesity.

Obesity and unfavorable metabolic profiles increase the risk for cardiovascular complications in adults. Although it is important to distinguish different metabolic health states at an early stage, there are limited data on the related value of biomarkers in childhood. We aimed to identify biomarkers for the detection of different metabolic health states in children with and without obesity. The serum levels of metabolic regulators (fibroblast growth factor 21 [FGF21], leptin, adiponectin and insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1) and vascular indices (flow-mediated dilation [FMD] and carotid intima-media thickness) were assessed in 78 children. Differences between the metabolically healthy and unhealthy state within children with normal weight (MHN vs. MUN), and within children with overweight/obesity (MHO vs. MUO) were investigated; the discriminatory power of the biomarkers was studied. Both MUN and MUO groups expressed altered lipid and glucose homeostasis compared to their healthy counterparts. The metabolic unhealthy state in children with normal weight was linked to higher FGF21 levels which had good discriminatory ability (area under the curve [AUC]: 0.71, 95% CI: 0.54-0.88; p = 0.044). In overweight/obese children, leptin was increased in the metabolically unhealthy subgroup (AUC: 0.81, 95% CI: 0.68-0.95; p = 0.01). There was a decrease in FMD indicating worse endothelial function in overweight/obese children versus those with normal weight. Distinct states of metabolic health exist in both children with normal weight and overweight/obese children. FGF21 and leptin may help to identify the metabolic unhealthy state in children with normal weight and in overweight/obese children, respectively, early in life.

The role of endothelial shear stress, shear stress gradient, and plaque topography in plaque erosion.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Plaque erosion is a common underlying cause of acute coronary syndromes. The role of endothelial shear stress (ESS) and endothelial shear stress gradient (ESSG) in plaque erosion remains unknown. We aimed to determine the role of ESS metrics and maximum plaque slope steepness in plaques with erosion versus stable plaques. METHODS: This analysis included 46 patients/plaques from TOTAL and COMPLETE trials and Brigham and Women's Hospital's database who underwent angiography and OCT. Plaques were divided into those with erosion (n = 24) and matched stable coronary plaques (n = 22). Angiographic views were used to generate a 3-D arterial reconstruction, with centerlines merged from angiography and OCT pullback. Local ESS metrics were assessed by computational fluid dynamics. Among plaque erosions, the up- and down-slope (Δ lumen area/frame) was calculated for each culprit plaque. RESULTS: Compared with stable plaque controls, plaques with an erosion were associated with higher max ESS (8.3 ± 4.8 vs. 5.0 ± 1.9 Pa, p = 0.02) and max ESSG any direction (9.2 ± 7.5 vs. 4.3 ± 3.11 Pa/mm, p = 0.005). Proximal erosion was associated with a steeper plaque upslope while distal erosion with a steeper plaque downslope. Max ESS and Max ESSG any direction were independent factors in the development of plaque erosion (OR 1.32, 95%CI 1.06-1.65, p = 0.014; OR 1.22, 95% CI 1.03-1.45, p = 0.009, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: In plaques with similar luminal stenosis, plaque erosion was strongly associated with higher ESS, ESS gradients, and plaque slope as compared with stable plaques. These data support that ESS and slope metrics play a key role in the development of plaque erosion and may help prognosticate individual plaques at risk for future erosion.

Augmented expression and activity of extracellular matrix-degrading enzymes in regions of low endothelial shear stress colocalize with coronary atheromata with thin fibrous caps in pigs.

Background- The molecular mechanisms that determine the localized formation of thin-capped atheromata in the coronary arteries remain unknown. This study tested the hypothesis that low endothelial shear stress augments the expression of matrix-degrading proteases and thereby promotes the formation of thin-capped atheromata. Methods and Results- Intravascular ultrasound-based, geometrically correct 3-dimensional reconstruction of the coronary arteries of 12 swine was performed in vivo 23 weeks after initiation of diabetes mellitus and a hyperlipidemic diet. Local endothelial shear stress was calculated in plaque-free subsegments of interest (n=142) with computational fluid dynamics. At week 30, the coronary arteries (n=31) were harvested and the same subsegments were identified. The messenger RNA and protein expression and elastolytic activity of selected elastases and their endogenous inhibitors were assessed. Subsegments with low preceding endothelial shear stress at week 23 showed reduced endothelial coverage, enhanced lipid accumulation, and intense infiltration of activated inflammatory cells at week 30. These lesions showed increased expression of messenger RNAs encoding matrix metalloproteinase-2, -9, and -12, and cathepsins K and S relative to their endogenous inhibitors and increased elastolytic activity. Expression of these enzymes correlated positively with the severity of internal elastic lamina fragmentation. Thin-capped atheromata developed in regions with lower preceding endothelial shear stress and had reduced endothelial coverage, intense lipid and inflammatory cell accumulation, enhanced messenger RNA expression and elastolytic activity of MMPs and cathepsins, and severe internal elastic lamina fragmentation. Conclusions- Low endothelial shear stress induces endothelial discontinuity and accumulation of activated inflammatory cells, thereby augmenting the expression and activity of elastases in the intima and shifting the balance with their inhibitors toward matrix breakdown. Our results provide new insight into the mechanisms of regional formation of plaques with thin fibrous caps.

The effect of statins on high-risk atherosclerotic plaque associated with low endothelial shear stress.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: Low endothelial shear stress (ESS) plays an important role in the progression and severity of atherosclerotic lesions. As 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A reductase inhibitors (statins) appear to stabilize plaque, it would be valuable to understand how statins affect the nature of lesions in the proatherogenic and proinflammatory environment of low ESS and the effect of statins on that atherosclerotic process. The purpose of this review is to summarize the relationship among low ESS, high-risk plaque and statins. RECENT FINDINGS: Low ESS is a critically important determinant of plaque development and progression to high-risk plaques with large necrotic lipid core, intensive inflammation and thin fibrous cap. In addition to the proatherogenic phenotypic switching in areas of low ESS, local LDL cholesterol concentrations are also increased in areas of low ESS, which exacerbates the local atherogenic process. In experimental models, statins appear to reduce the inflammation in lesions associated with low ESS and reduce the atherosclerotic phenotype even in these high-risk prone vascular areas. SUMMARY: The relationship between low ESS and statins has not been fully investigated, but the available data underscore the vasculoprotective effect of statins. Understanding the mechanisms whereby statins reduce the atherogenic and inflammatory phenotype resulting from a low ESS environment would provide new insights to design strategies to prevent regional formation of high-risk, inflamed plaques likely to rupture and cause an adverse clinical event.

Three-vessel spontaneous coronary artery dissection in a patient with hyperhomocysteinemia.

Increased homocysteine has been related to the occurrence of dissections in the coronary circulation, aorta, and cervical arteries. Spontaneous coronary artery dissection (SCAD) is a relatively rare phenomenon, and data on the long-term follow-up of patients with SCAD are extremely limited. Herein, we describe a case of a young male patient with 3-vessel SCAD (presence of radiolucent linear defects indicating the presence of dissections in all three major coronary arteries) who was found to have hyperhomocysteinemia and a concurrent methylenetetrahydrofolate reductase prothrombotic mutation. Despite the presence of multi-vessel SCAD, the patient had clinically stable coronary artery disease for a long period. .