Science and pseudo science: racist eugenics in Italy.

In the present article we briefly discuss the historical premises of eugenics. Differences and some analogies between the Latin and the German way of eugenics in the 20th century are presented, until the tragic antisemitic turn. The fate of some children in the South Tyrol border region is also discussed, as well as the role of several anatomo-pathologists as willing executors of autopsies on the victims of the eugenic project of eliminating mentally and physically disabled people.

The hidden side of Santiago Ramon y Cajal.

Alongside his anatomical studies, which laid the foundations of modern neuroanatomy, Santiago Ramón y Cajal also showed a lively interest in studying dreams, hypnosis, and the world of the paranormal. On his travels to worlds far removed from anatomy, Cajal sometimes strove to find potential neuroanatomical explanations for the phenomena he encountered, while at other times he simply allowed himself to be carried along by his curiosity, with no preconceptions. His investigations in such diverse spheres of knowledge and human behavior are an exceptional example of a scientific epoch that has since disappeared.

Jewish anatomic pathologists in the time of Italian Racial Laws.

The persecutions of the Jews that began with legislation introduced by Italy's fascist government in the year 1938 ("Leggi Razziali" i.e. "Racial Laws") also affected the sphere of anatomic pathology, coming to bear on Italian physicians belonging to the Jewish communities of several cities and universities. The damage caused by the discrimination against them and their removal from their jobs penetrated a public health world that had hitherto been based on a climate of tolerance and integration. Here we recall some emblematic figures involved in those troubled times in Italy's history.

Tuberculosis: the sanatorium season in the early 20th century.

The creation of hospitals providing specialist care is not a prerogative of our time. As the world wonders how to cope with new pandemics and the age-old problems of the transmission of infections and the isolation of the sick, while the COVID-19 pandemic has been raging, it might be worth glancing back at the period - just over a century ago - when sanatoriums were set up in Italy as part of the fight against consumption.

Abiraterone acetate and acute leukemia: a casual association?

We present the case of a 70-year-old patient affected by metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. He underwent radical prostatectomy in 2007 and subsequent adjuvant radiotherapy and hormonal therapy for 2 years. In 2011, he developed bilateral lung metastases, and therefore he received chemotherapy (eight cycles of docetaxel 75 mg/sqm every 3 weeks) with partial remission; rechallenge with the same drug was performed 7 months later due to recurrence of lung metastases. In August 2013, abiraterone acetate was started for progression of lung metastases. The patient received abiraterone for almost 5 years with stability of disease. During the 60th cycle of abiraterone, a diagnosis of acute myeloid leukemia was made.

Ugo Cerletti, Pathologica and electroconvulsive therapy.

Ugo Cerletti was the inventor of the electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) adopted in 1938 to treat schizophrenia. He had a robust education in anatomical pathology, which also left its mark on the journal Pathologica. Although his name is associated with several important moments and breakthroughs in the history of medicine, Ugo Cerletti's reputation has partly suffered from the same fate as his treatment. Electroshock was initially widely adopted, partly because of its low cost and relatively easy application, but with the advent of psychoactive drugs in the 1950s and 1960s, it subsequently came under ferocious criticism. Its fall from grace also affected to some extent the man who had invented it, though this seems hard to justify today.

How young patients with cancer perceive the COVID-19 (coronavirus) epidemic in Milan, Italy: Is there room for other fears?

The rapid spread of coronavirus disease 2019 epidemic in Italy, in particular in the Milan focal point, required drastic measures and led to panic in the population. While in our center we did not change our approach to the treatment of our young patients with cancer, we developed a qualitative survey to assess their perception of the risk and level of stress. The survey showed that a relatively large proportion of young patients felt personally at risk of severe complications. We believe that we need to adequately inform our patients, focusing on hygienic measures and personal protection and prompt reporting of any suspicious symptoms.

Invasion and metastasis: a historical perspective.

The idea that neoplasms grow, becoming unresectable through dissemination, which is initially loco-regional, and systemic only in a later stage, is historically at the basis of the radical surgery - where, by 'radical', the old surgery meant the complete removal of the tumor and, in practice, aggressive surgery. Halsted's "radical mastectomy", as well as many principles of surgical anatomy of the first decades of the twentieth century, obey to an idea of tumor progression as a linear process taking place in continuity and contiguity, where the various anatomical layers and the peritumoral desmoplastic reaction are mistaken for a wall of defense against the neoplasm's dissemination, capable of containing and orienting it. However, the investigations of the processes of invasion and metastasis by Rudolf Virchow and Stephel Paget helped to reorient surgical approaches.

PRAME expression in 137 primary cutaneous melanomas and comparison with 38 related metastases.

Melanocytic lesions have always represented a diagnostic challenge for surgical pathologists. According to the literature, PRAME showed great promise as an immunohistochemical tool in the distinction between benign and malignant melanocytic lesions. In the present study, we retrospectively analyzed 137 thicker (Breslow > 1 mm) primary cutaneous melanomas with the aim to better understand the utility of PRAME immunohistochemistry in daily practice and also to investigate if PRAME could represent a prognostic biomarker for cutaneous melanomas. PRAME immunohistochemistry was performed in all melanomas and in the metastases with antibodies to PRAME (dilution 1:1000, clone Ab219650) on an automated immunostainer (Ventana Benchmark Ultra) using a brown chromogen (DAB). We found that melanomas (59.1%) show diffuse PRAME expression (score 4 +). 99 (72.3%) primary cutaneous melanoma had no relapse during the follow-up. Of this group of melanomas, 61/99 (61.6%) were diffusely positive for PRAME. 38 (27.7%) primary cutaneous melanoma had relapses. Of this group, 28/36 (77.7%) were diffusely positive. We did not find any statistical correlation between diffuse PRAME expression and the presence of driver mutation in BRAF gene (p = 0.927), NRAS gene (p = 0.496) or either of the two (p = 0.138). We did not find a prognostic significance of diffuse PRAME expression for relapse (p = 0.462) or survival rate (p = 0.245). The prognostic value of PRAME has been only reported in mucosal, uveal and cutaneous thin melanomas. Here, we show statistical analyses on PRAME expression for melanoma with Breslow > 1 mm based on survival rate and long-term follow-up. According to our results, PRAME is a useful immunohistochemical ancillary tool in daily practice diagnosis of melanocytic lesions.

A Peculiar CLL Case with Complex Chromosome 6 Rearrangements and Refinement of All Breakpoints at the Gene Level by Genomic Array: A Case Report.

INTRODUCTION: Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), the most common leukemia in Western countries, is a mature B-cell chronic lymphoproliferative disorder characterized by the accumulation of neoplastic CD5+ B lymphocytes, functionally incompetent and usually monoclonal in origin, in bone marrow, lymph nodes and blood. Diagnosis occurs predominantly in elderly patients, with a median age reported between 67 and 72 years. CLL has a heterogeneous clinical course, which can vary from indolent to, less frequently, aggressive forms. Early-stage asymptomatic CLL patients do not require immediate therapeutic intervention, but only observation; treatment is necessary for patients with advanced disease or when "active disease" is observed. The most frequent autoimmune cytopenia (AIC) is autoimmune haemolytic anaemia (AHIA). The main mechanisms underlying the appearance of AIC in CLL are not fully elucidated, the predisposition of patients with CLL to suffering autoimmune complications is variable and autoimmune cytopenia can precede, be concurrent, or follow the diagnosis of CLL. CASE PRESENTATION: A 74-year-old man was admitted to the emergency room following the finding of severe macrocytic anaemia during blood tests performed that same day, in particular the patient showed a profound asthenia dating back several months. The anamnesis was silent and the patient was not taking any medications. The blood examination showed an extremely high White Blood Cell count and findings of AIHA in CLL-type mature B-cell lymphoproliferative neoplasia. Genetic investigations: Conventional karyotyping was performed and it obtained a trisomy 8 and an unbalanced translocation between the short arm of chromosome 6 and the long arm of chromosome 11, concurrent with interstitial deletions in chromosomes 6q and 11q that could not be defined in detail. Molecular cytogenetics (FISH) analyses revealed Ataxia Telangiectasia Mutated (ATM) monoallelic deletion (with loss of ATM on derivative chromosome 11) and retained signals for TP53, 13q14 and centromere 12 FISH probes. TP53 and IGHV were not mutated. Array-CGH confirmed trisomy of the entire chromosome 8 and allowed us to resolve in detail the nature of the unbalanced translocation, revealing multiple regions of genomic losses on chromosomes 6 and 11. DISCUSSION: The present case report is an unusual CLL case with complex karyotype and refinement of all breakpoints at the gene level by the genomic array. From a genetic point of view, the case under study presented several peculiarities. CONCLUSIONS: We report the genetic findings of a CLL patient with abrupt disease onset, so far responding properly to treatments despite the presence of distinct genetic adverse traits including ATM deletion, complex karyotype and chromosome 6q chromoanagenesis event. Our report confirms that interphase FISH alone is not able to provide an overview of the whole genomic landscape in selected CLL cases and that additional techniques are required to reach an appropriate cytogenetic stratification of patients.

Diagnostic accuracy of clathrin heavy chain staining in a marker panel for the diagnosis of small hepatocellular carcinoma.

UNLABELLED: The American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases guidelines recommend the use of all available markers for improving the accuracy of the diagnosis of small hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). To determine whether clathrin heavy chain (CHC), a novel HCC marker, is effective in combination with glypican 3 (GPC3), heat shock protein 70, and glutamine synthetase, we compared the performances of a three-marker panel (without CHC) and a four-marker panel (with CHC) in a series of small HCCs (≤2 cm) and nonsmall HCCs by core biopsy with a 20- to 21-gauge needle. The series included 39 nonsmall HCCs and 47 small HCCs (86 in all); the latter showed a well-differentiated histology [small grade 1 (G1)] in 30 cases (63.8%). The panel specificity was analyzed with the adjacent/extranodular cirrhotic liver (n = 30) and low-grade (n = 15) and high-grade dysplastic nodules (n = 16) as a control group. Absolute specificity (100%) for HCC was obtained only when at least two of the markers were positive (which two markers were positive did not matter). The addition of CHC to the panel increased the diagnostic accuracy for small HCCs (from 76.9% to 84.3%), and there was an important gain in sensitivity (from 46.8% to 63.8%). The four-marker panel had lower rates of accuracy (67.4%) and sensitivity (50%) for small G1 HCCs versus nonsmall G1 HCCs (93.9% and 88.2%, respectively). In seven cases (including six small G1 HCCs), there was no staining with any of the markers. Cirrhotic control livers were stained for CHC in four cases (13.3%) and for GPC3 in one case (3.3%). CONCLUSION: The addition of CHC to the panel supports the diagnosis of small HCCs in challenging nodules on thin core biopsy samples. Small G1 HCCs include a group of earlier tumors characterized by a more silent phenotype and the progressive acquisition of the markers under study. The search for additional markers for early HCC diagnosis is warranted.

Validation of a Novel Three-Dimensional (3D Fusion) Gross Sampling Protocol for Clear Cell Renal Cell Carcinoma to Overcome Intratumoral Heterogeneity: The Meet-Uro 18 Study.

We aimed to overcome intratumoral heterogeneity in clear cell renal cell carcinoma (clearRCC). One hundred cases of clearRCC were sampled. First, usual standard sampling was applied (1 block/cm of tumor); second, the whole tumor was sampled, and 0.6 mm cores were taken from each block to construct a tissue microarray; third, the residual tissue, mapped by taking pieces 0.5 × 0.5 cm, reconstructed the entire tumor mass. Precisely, six randomly derived pieces of tissues were placed in each cassette, with the number of cassettes being based on the diameter of the tumor (called multisite 3D fusion). Angiogenic and immune markers were tested. Routine 5231 tissue blocks were obtained. Multisite 3D fusion sections showed pattern A, homogeneous high vascular density (10%), pattern B, homogeneous low vascular density (8%) and pattern C, heterogeneous angiogenic signatures (82%). PD-L1 expression was seen as diffuse (7%), low (33%) and absent (60%). Tumor-infiltrating CD8 scored high in 25% (pattern hot), low in 65% (pattern weak) and zero in 10% of cases (pattern desert). Grading was upgraded in 26% of cases (G3-G4), necrosis and sarcomatoid/rhabdoid characters were observed in, respectively, 11 and 7% of cases after 3D fusion (p = 0.03). CD8 and PD-L1 immune expressions were higher in the undifferentiated G4/rhabdoid/sarcomatoid clearRCC subtypes (p = 0.03). Again, 22% of cases were set to intermediate to high risk of clinical recurrence due to new morphological findings of all aggressive G4, sarcomatoid/rhabdoid features by using 3D fusion compared to standard methods (p = 0.04). In conclusion, we propose an easy-to-apply multisite 3D fusion sampling that negates bias due to tumor heterogeneity.

Primary MiNEN of the urinary bladder: an hitherto undescribed entity composed of large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma and adenocarcinoma with a distinct clinical behavior : Description of a case and review of the pertinent literature.

Neuroendocrine carcinomas (NECs) of the urinary bladder are very rare and can be observed in the context of mixed neuroendocrine/non-neuroendocrine neoplasms (MiNENs), most frequently in association with urothelial carcinoma. Small cell NECs are far more common than large cell NECs (LCNECs), which are exceedingly rare. We describe a primary MiNEN of the urinary bladder, composed of a LCNEC and of an adenocarcinoma, in which the neuroendocrine component reached complete pathological regression after neoadjuvant M-VAC chemotherapy, whereas the non-neuroendocrine component of the tumor progressed to metastatic disease. Compared to mixed neuroendocrine/non-neuroendocrine neoplasms described in the literature until now, this appears to be a unique case that expands the spectrum of neuroendocrine neoplasia of the urinary bladder.

Second series by the Italian Association of Pediatric Hematology and Oncology of children and adolescents with intracranial ependymoma: an integrated molecular and clinical characterization with a long-term follow-up.

BACKGROUND: A prospective 2002-2014 study stratified 160 patients by resection extent and histological grade, reporting results in 2016. We re-analyzed the series after a median of 119 months, adding retrospectively patients' molecular features. METHODS: Follow-up of all patients was updated. DNA copy number analysis and gene-fusion detection could be completed for 94/160 patients, methylation classification for 68. RESULTS: Progression-free survival (PFS) and overall survival (OS) at 5/10 years were 66/58%, and 80/73%. Ten patients had late relapses (range 66-126 mo), surviving after relapse no longer than those relapsing earlier (0-5 y). On multivariable analysis a better PFS was associated with grade II tumor and complete surgery at diagnosis and/or at radiotherapy; female sex and complete resection showed a positive association with OS. Posterior fossa (PF) tumors scoring ≥0.80 on DNA methylation analysis were classified as PFA (n = 41) and PFB (n = 9). PFB patients had better PFS and OS. Eighteen/32 supratentorial tumors were classified as RELA, and 3 as other molecular entities (anaplastic PXA, LGG MYB, HGNET). RELA had no prognostic impact. Patients with 1q gain or cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor 2A (CDKN2A) loss had worse outcomes, included significantly more patients >3 years old (P = 0.050) and cases of dissemination at relapse (P = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: Previously described prognostic factors were confirmed at 10-year follow-up. Late relapses occurred in 6.2% of patients. Specific molecular features may affect outcome: PFB patients had a very good prognosis; 1q gain and CDKN2A loss were associated with dissemination. To draw reliable conclusions, modern ependymoma trials need to combine diagnostics with molecular risk stratification and long-term follow-up.

Correction to: PD-L1 expression in bladder primary in situ urothelial carcinoma: evaluation in BCG-unresponsive patients and BCG responders.

This correction is being done to update the right surname of first name of authors of this manuscript. This does not change the results or the views presented in this manuscript.

PD-L1 expression in bladder primary in situ urothelial carcinoma: evaluation in BCG-unresponsive patients and BCG responders.

Carcinoma in situ (CIS) is believed to be a precursor of muscle-invasive carcinomas that may arise from these flat high-grade, superficial urothelial lesions. CIS accounts for approximately 10% of all bladder tumors. Therapeutic options for urothelial CIS are limited, and in order to inhibit disease progression and recurrence, current guidelines recommend transurethral resection (TURBT) followed by intravesical administration of Bacillus of Calmette-Guerin (BCG). Approximately 30-40% of patients fail the BCG therapy with recurrence and progression of disease. In the present study, we examined the expression of PD-L1 both in neoplastic epithelial cells and in stromal inflammatory cells in patients with diagnosis of CIS primary responders and not responders to BCG therapy, in order to verify if the PD-L1 expression could identify patients resistant to BCG treatment. Moreover, we analyzed on the same cases the immunoreactivities of anti-PD-L1 MoAbs such as SP263, C23, and SP142. Our results have showed that PD-L1 expression in tumor cells and in immune cell compartment is higher in BCG-unresponsive group than in BCG responders, but only the PD-L1 22C3 expression in tumor cells seems to be associated with recurrence of disease (p = 0.035; OR 0.1204; CI 95% from 0.0147 to 1.023). Hence, our data suggest that the PD-L1 22C3 expression could help to identify CIS that fail the BCG therapy, supporting the hypothesis that enhanced levels of intratumoral PD-L1 22C3 expressed by the tumor cells may explain the failure of BCG immunotherapy.

Cell discohesion and multifocality of carcinoma in situ of the bladder: new insight from the adhesion molecule profile (e-cadherin, Ep-CAM, and MUC1).

Urothelial cell carcinoma in situ (CIS) of the bladder is a superficially diffusive and highly discohesive disease. The authors analyzed the expression of some adhesion molecules (e-cadherin and Ep-CAM) and MUC1 in 32 unifocal and multifocal bladder urothelial cell CIS in an attempt to clarify this discohesion. E-cadherin was strongly expressed, in more than 75% of the cases. The presence of methylation of the CDH1 e-cadherin promoter gene was also investigated, but methylation was found in only one case. Ep-CAM was present in all the cases with a heterogeneous staining pattern. Similarly, MUC1/episialin was variously present in 94% of the cases without a polarized staining pattern and was expressed more strongly in cases with multifocal disease. Because loss of MUC1 polarization leads to interference with cell-cell adhesion mechanisms mediated by cadherins, these findings help explain why bladder urothelial cell CIS often shows a discohesive morphology and multifocality despite a strongly expressed adhesion molecule profile. Finally, Ep-CAM expression might provide some support for future target therapy trials.