Regulation of mouse primordial follicle formation by signaling through the PI3K pathway†.

Cell signaling mediated by the KIT receptor is critical for many aspects of oogenesis including the proliferation and migration of primordial germ cells, as well as the survival, growth, and maturation of ovarian follicles. We previously showed that KIT regulates cyst breakdown and primordial follicle formation, and in this study, have investigated the mechanisms downstream of the receptor by modulating the activity of two downstream signaling cascades: the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) and the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways. E17.5 ovaries were cultured for 5 days with a daily dose of media supplemented with either the PI3K inhibitor LY294002, the MEK inhibitor U0126, or a DMSO vehicle control. Our histological observations aligned with the established role of PI3K in oocyte growth and primordial follicle activation but also revealed that LY294002 treatment delayed the processes of cyst breakdown and primordial follicle formation. U0126 treatment also led to a reduction in oocyte growth and follicle development but did not appear to affect cyst breakdown. The delay in cyst breakdown was mitigated when ovaries were dually dosed with LY294002 and KITL, suggesting that while KIT may signal through PI3K to promote cyst breakdown, other signaling networks downstream of the receptor could compensate. These observations unearth a role for PI3K signaling in the establishment of the ovarian reserve and suggest that PI3K might be the primary mediator of KIT-induced cyst breakdown and primordial follicle formation in the mouse ovary.

Oocyte Survival and Development during Follicle Formation and Folliculogenesis in Mice Lacking Aromatase.

BACKGROUND: Assembly of oocytes into primordial follicles is essential for establishing the ovarian reserve required for female fertility. In mice, this process begins during embryonic development. Primordial germ cells form cysts by incomplete mitosis until 13.5 days post coitum (dpc). These cysts break apart just before birth. Some oocytes undergo apoptosis while surviving oocytes are enclosed by granulosa cells to form primordial follicles. Cyst breakdown and primordial follicle formation were previously shown to be inhibited by estradiol and estrogenic compounds in vitro, suggesting that estrogen is important for regulation of this process. METHODS: To determine the role of fetal estrogen in cyst breakdown and follicle formation these processes were quantified in aromatase deficient (ArKO) mice between 17.5 dpc and postnatal day (PND) 9. Ovaries of ArKO mice were also examined at 2-week intervals to determine if folliculogenesis is affected by lack of estrogen and the age at which the typical ArKO ovarian phenotype first appears. RESULTS: Oocyte number, follicle assembly, and follicle development in ArKO mice did not differ from controls between 17.5 dpc and PND 9. At 2 weeks, ArKO ovaries still had oocytes in cysts while all oocytes were enclosed in follicles in wild type ovaries. From 2 to 8 weeks oocyte numbers were similar in all genotypes with a significant reduction at 10 weeks in ovaries from homozygous mutants. Abnormal hemorrhagic follicles were observed starting at 6 weeks, earlier than previously reported and hemosiderin deposits were found starting at 8 weeks. CONCLUSIONS: These results suggest that a lack of fetal estrogen does not affect oocyte survival or the rate of primordial follicle formation perinatally, and maternal estrogen or other signals are the chief regulators. The appearance of abnormal hemorrhagic follicles observed as early as 6 weeks suggests that the lack of estrogen becomes problematic at this time.

Molecular analysis of the effects of steroid hormones on mouse meiotic prophase I progression.

BACKGROUND: Infertility is linked to depletion of the primordial follicle pool consisting of individual oocytes arrested at the diplotene stage of meiotic prophase I surrounded by granulosa cells. Primordial germ cells, the oocyte precursors, begin to differentiate during embryonic development. These cells migrate to the genital ridge and begin mitotic divisions, remaining connected, through incomplete cytokinesis, in clusters of synchronously dividing oogonia known as germ cell cysts. Subsequently, they enter meiosis, become oocytes and progress through prophase I to the diplotene stage. The cysts break apart, allowing individual oocytes to be surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells, forming primordial follicles each containing a diplotene arrested oocyte. A large number of oocytes are lost coincident with cyst breakdown, and may be important for quality control of primordial follicle formation. Exposure of developing ovaries to exogenous hormones can disrupt cyst breakdown and follicle formation, but it is unclear if hormones affect progression of oocytes through prophase I of meiosis. METHODS: Fetal ovaries were treated in organ culture with estradiol, progesterone, or both hormones, labeled for MSY2 or Synaptonemal complex protein 3 (SYCP3) using whole mount immunocytochemistry and examined by confocal microscopy. Meiotic prophase I progression was also followed using the meiotic surface spread technique. RESULTS: MSY2 expression in oocytes was reduced by progesterone but not estradiol or the hormone combination. However, while MSY2 expression was upregulated during development it was not a precise marker for the diplotene stage. We also followed meiotic prophase I progression using antibodies against SYCP3 using two different methods, and found that the percent of oocytes at the pachytene stage peaked at postnatal day 1. Finally, estradiol and progesterone treatment together but not either alone in organ culture increased the percent of oocytes at the pachytene stage. CONCLUSIONS: We set out to examine the effects of hormones on prophase I progression and found that while MSY2 expression was reduced by progesterone, MSY2 was not a precise diplotene stage marker. Using antibodies against SYCP3 to identify pachytene stage oocytes we found that progesterone and estradiol together delayed progression of oocytes through prophase I.

Arrest at the diplotene stage of meiotic prophase I is delayed by progesterone but is not required for primordial follicle formation in mice.

BACKGROUND: In mammalian females, reproductive capacity is determined by the size of the primordial follicle pool. During embryogenesis, oogonia divide mitotically but cytokinesis is incomplete so oogonia remain connected in germ cell cysts. Oogonia begin to enter meiosis at 13.5 days postcoitum in the mouse and over several days, oocytes progress through the stages of meiotic prophase I arresting in the diplotene stage. Concurrently, germ cell cysts break apart and individual oocytes become surrounded by granulosa cells forming primordial follicles. In rats, inhibition of a synaptonemal complex protein caused premature arrival at the diplotene stage and premature primordial follicle assembly suggesting diplotene arrest might trigger primordial follicle formation. Cyst breakdown and primordial follicle formation are blocked by exposure to steroid hormones but hormone effects on the timing of diplotene arrest are unclear. Here, we asked: (1) if oocytes were required to arrest in diplotene before follicles formed, (2) if all oocytes within a germ cell cyst arrested at diplotene synchronously, and (3) if steroid hormones affected progression through prophase I. METHODS: Meiotic stage and follicle formation were assessed in histological sections. Statistical differences over time were determined using one-way ANOVA followed by Newman-Keuls multiple comparisons test. To determine if steroid hormones affect the rate of progression to the diplotene stage, 17.5 dpc ovaries were placed in organ culture with media containing estradiol, progesterone or both hormones. In this case, differences were determined using one-way ANOVA followed by Dunnett's multiple comparisons test. RESULTS: We found primordial follicles containing oocytes at the diplotene stage as well as follicles containing oocytes at pre-diplotene stages. We also found individual germ cell cysts containing oocytes at both diplotene and pre-diplotene stages. Progesterone but not estradiol reduced the number of diplotene oocytes in ovary organ culture. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that meiotic progression and primordial follicle formation are independent events. In addition, oocytes in germ cell cysts do not synchronously proceed through meiosis. Finally, only progesterone delayed transit though meiotic prophase I.

Prenatal exposure to chromium induces early reproductive senescence by increasing germ cell apoptosis and advancing germ cell cyst breakdown in the F1 offspring.

Hexavalent chromium (CrVI), one of the more toxic heavy metals, is widely used in more than 50 industries such as chrome plating, welding, wood processing and tanneries. As one of the world's leading producers of chromium compounds, the U.S. is facing growing challenges in protecting human health against multiple adverse effects of CrVI. CrVI is rapidly converted to CrIII intracellularly, and can induce apoptosis through different mechanisms. Our previous studies demonstrated postnatal exposure to CrVI results in a delay or arrest in follicle development and puberty. Pregnant rats were treated with 25 ppm potassium dichromate (CrVI) from gestational day (GD) 9.5 to 14.5 through drinking water, placentae were removed on GD 20, and total Cr was estimated in the placentae; ovaries were removed from the F1 offspring on postnatal day (PND)-1 and various analyses were performed. Our results show that gestational exposure to CrVI resulted in (i) increased Cr concentration in the placenta, (ii) increased germ cell apoptosis by up-regulating p53/p27-Bax-caspase-3 proteins and by increasing p53-SOD-2 co-localization; (iii) accelerated germ cell cyst (GCC) breakdown; (iv) advanced primordial follicle assembly and primary follicle transition and (v) down regulation of p-AKT, p-ERK and XIAP. As a result of the above events, CrVI induced early reproductive senescence and decrease in litter size in F1 female progeny.

Lats1 Deletion Causes Increased Germ Cell Apoptosis and Follicular Cysts in Mouse Ovaries.

The Hippo signaling pathway is essential for regulating proliferation and apoptosis in mammalian cells. The LATS1 kinase is a core member of the Hippo signaling pathway that phosphorylates and inactivates the transcriptional co-activators YAP1 and WWTR1. Deletion of Lats1 results in low neonate survival and ovarian stromal tumors in surviving adults, but the effects of Lats1 on early follicular development are not understood. Here, the expression of Hippo pathway components including Wwtr1, Stk4, Stk3, Lats2, and Yap1 transcripts were decreased by 50% in mouse ovaries between 2 and 8 days of age while expression was maintained from 8 days to 21 days and after priming with eCG. LATS1, LATS2, and MOB1B were localized to both germ and somatic cells of primordial to antral follicles. Interestingly, YAP1 was predominantly cytoplasmic, whereas WWTR1 was nuclear in oocytes and somatic cells. Deletion of Lats1 caused an increase in germ cell apoptosis from 1.7% in control ovaries to 3.6% in Lats1 mutant ovaries and a 58% and 32% decrease in primordial and activated follicle numbers in cultured mutant ovaries. Surprisingly, there was an increase in Bmp15 but not Gdf9, Figla, Nobox transcripts or the somatic-specific transcripts Amh and Wnt4 in cultured Lats1 mutant ovaries. Last, Lats1 mutant ovaries developed ovarian cysts at a higher frequency (43%) than heterozygous (24%) and control ovaries (8%). Results showed that the Hippo pathway is active in ovarian follicles and that LATS1 is required to maintain the pool of germ cells and primordial follicles.

KIT signaling regulates primordial follicle formation in the neonatal mouse ovary.

The pool of primordial follicles determines the reproductive lifespan of the mammalian female, and its establishment is highly dependent upon proper oocyte cyst breakdown and regulation of germ cell numbers. The mechanisms controlling these processes remain a mystery. We hypothesized that KIT signaling might play a role in perinatal oocyte cyst breakdown, determination of oocyte numbers and the assembly of primordial follicles. We began by examining the expression of both KIT and KIT ligand in fetal and neonatal ovaries. KIT was expressed only in oocytes during cyst breakdown, but KIT ligand was present in both oocytes and somatic cells as primordial follicles formed. To test whether KIT signaling plays a role in cyst breakdown and primordial follicle formation, we used ovary organ culture to inhibit and activate KIT signaling during the time when these processes occur in the ovary. We found that when KIT was inhibited, there was a reduction in cyst breakdown and an increase in oocyte numbers. Subsequent studies using TUNEL analysis showed that when KIT was inhibited, cell death was reduced. Conversely, when KIT was activated, cyst breakdown was promoted and oocyte numbers decreased. Using Western blotting, we found increased levels of phosphorylated MAP Kinase when KIT ligand was added to culture. Taken together, these results demonstrate a role for KIT signaling in perinatal oocyte cyst breakdown that may be mediated by MAP Kinase downstream of KIT.

The steroid hormone environment during primordial follicle formation in perinatal mouse ovaries.

Primordial follicle assembly is essential for reproduction in mammalian females. Oocytes develop in germ cell cysts that in late fetal development begin break down into individual oocytes and become surrounded by pregranulosa cells, forming primordial follicles. As they separate, many oocytes are lost by apoptosis. Exposure to steroid hormones delays cyst breakdown, follicle formation, and associated oocyte loss in some species. One model for regulation of follicle formation is that steroid hormones in the maternal circulation keep cells in cysts and prevent oocyte death during fetal development but that late in pregnancy hormone levels drop, triggering cyst breakdown and associated oocyte loss. However, herein we found that, while maternal circulating levels of progesterone drop during late fetal development, maternal estradiol levels remain high. We hypothesized that fetal ovaries were the source of hormones and that late in fetal development their production stops. To test this, mRNA and protein levels of steroidogenic enzymes required for estradiol and progesterone synthesis were measured. We found that aromatase and 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase mRNA levels drop before cyst breakdown. The 3-beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase protein levels also dropped, but we did not detect a change in aromatase protein levels. The steroid content of perinatal ovaries was assayed, and both estradiol and progesterone were detected in fetal ovaries before cyst breakdown. To determine the role of steroid hormones in oocyte development, we examined the effects of blocking steroid hormone production in organ culture and found that the number of oocytes was reduced, supporting our model that steroid hormones are important for fetal oocyte survival.

Role of the antiapoptotic proteins BCL2 and MCL1 in the neonatal mouse ovary.

The mammalian ovarian lifespan is determined at the time of birth through a delicate balance of oocyte survival and apoptosis as primordial follicles form, and the mechanism by which germ cells die is not understood. We hypothesized that two BCL2 family proteins, BCL2 and MCL1, may be responsible for regulating neonatal oocyte survival. Previous work has shown that BCL2 is important for germ cell survival in adult mouse ovaries, but no work has been done to examine its role at the time of birth. To elucidate the effects of BCL2 in the neonatal ovary, we examined ovaries of both Bcl2-overexpressing and knockout transgenic mice. When compared to wild-type mice, neither Bcl2 overexpression nor abrogation significantly altered ovarian histology. Another BCL2 family protein, MCL1, is expressed in human oocytes during ovarian development, suggesting a role for MCL1 in oocyte survival. To test this, we first examined the expression of MCL1 in the newborn mouse ovary. MCL1 was localized to both oocytes and somatic cells during primordial follicle formation. Subsequently, we used an in vitro organ culture system to identify a role for MCL1 in oocyte survival. We found that inhibition of MCL1 with an antibody to MCL1 in culture resulted in a reduced number of germ cells and an increase in cyst breakdown. Our data demonstrate that while BCL2 is not likely involved in perinatal oocyte survival, MCL1 may be an important regulator of the ovarian primordial follicle reserve.

Follicular assembly: mechanisms of action.

The differentiation of primordial germ cells (PGCs) into functional oocytes is important for the continuation of species. In mammals, PGCs begin to differentiate into oocytes during embryonic development. Oocytes develop in clusters called germ line cysts. During fetal or neonatal development, germ cell cysts break apart into single oocytes that become surrounded by pregranulosa cells to form primordial follicles. During the process of cyst breakdown, a subset of cells in each cyst undergoes cell death with only one-third of the initial number of oocytes surviving to form primordial follicles. The mechanisms that control cyst breakdown, oocyte survival, and follicle assembly are currently under investigation. This review describes the mechanisms that have been implicated in the control of primordial follicle formation, which include programmed cell death regulation, growth factor and other signaling pathways, regulation by transcription factors and hormones, meiotic progression, and changes in cell adhesion. Elucidation of mechanisms leading to formation of the primordial follicle pool will help research efforts in ovarian biology and improve treatments of female infertility, premature ovarian failure, and reproductive cancers.

Regulation of Meiotic Prophase One in Mammalian Oocytes.

In female mammals, meiotic prophase one begins during fetal development. Oocytes transition through the prophase one substages consisting of leptotene, zygotene, and pachytene, and are finally arrested at the diplotene substage, for months in mice and years in humans. After puberty, luteinizing hormone induces ovulation and meiotic resumption in a cohort of oocytes, driving the progression from meiotic prophase one to metaphase two. If fertilization occurs, the oocyte completes meiosis two followed by fusion with the sperm nucleus and preparation for zygotic divisions; otherwise, it is passed into the uterus and degenerates. Specifically in the mouse, oocytes enter meiosis at 13.5 days post coitum. As meiotic prophase one proceeds, chromosomes find their homologous partner, synapse, exchange genetic material between homologs and then begin to separate, remaining connected at recombination sites. At postnatal day 5, most of the oocytes have reached the late diplotene (or dictyate) substage of prophase one where they remain arrested until ovulation. This review focuses on events and mechanisms controlling the progression through meiotic prophase one, which include recombination, synapsis and control by signaling pathways. These events are prerequisites for proper chromosome segregation in meiotic divisions; and if they go awry, chromosomes mis-segregate resulting in aneuploidy. Therefore, elucidating the mechanisms regulating meiotic progression is important to provide a foundation for developing improved treatments of female infertility.

Primordial Follicle Formation - Some Assembly Required.

Formation of primordial follicles occurs when germ cell nests break apart and individual oocytes become surrounded by pregranulosa cells. Why mammalian germ cells develop in germ cell nests is not fully understood but recent work has provided evidence that some oocytes serve as nurse cells supporting other oocytes in the cyst. Headway has also been made in understanding interactions that occur between cyst cells that must change as individual oocytes separate to associate with pregranulosa cells. As germ cell nests undergo breakdown some oocytes are lost by programmed cell death that has been attributed to apoptosis, but newer studies have implicated autophagy in counteracting apoptosis to promote cell survival and maintain the ovarian reserve. Work in the past few years has added to already known pathways regulating primordial follicle formation and has identified new players including signaling molecules, transcription factors and RNA binding proteins.

Differences in oocyte development and estradiol sensitivity among mouse strains.

Mouse oocytes develop in clusters of interconnected cells called germline cysts. Shortly after birth, the majority of cysts break apart and primordial follicles form, consisting of one oocyte surrounded by granulosa cells. Concurrently, oocyte number is reduced by two-thirds. Exposure of neonatal females to estrogenic compounds causes multiple oocyte follicles that are likely germline cysts that did not break down. Supporting this idea, estrogen disrupts cyst breakdown and may regulate normal oocyte development. Previously, the CD-1 strain was used to study cyst breakdown and oocyte survival, but it is unknown if there are differences in these processes in other mouse strains. It is also unknown if there are variations in estrogen sensitivity during oocyte development. Here, we examined neonatal oocyte development in FVB, C57BL/6, and F2 hybrid (Oct4-GFP) strains, and compared them with the CD-1 strain. We found variability in oocyte development among the four strains. We also investigated estrogen sensitivity differences, and found that C57BL/6 ovaries are more sensitive to estradiol than CD-1, FVB, or Oct4-GFP ovaries. Insight into differences in oocyte development will facilitate comparison of mice generated on different genetic backgrounds. Understanding variations in estrogen sensitivity will lead to better understanding of the risks of environmental estrogen exposure in humans.

Estradiol, progesterone, and genistein inhibit oocyte nest breakdown and primordial follicle assembly in the neonatal mouse ovary in vitro and in vivo.

In developing mouse ovaries, oocytes develop as clusters of cells called nests or germ cell cysts. Shortly after birth, oocyte nests dissociate and granulosa cells surround individual oocytes forming primordial follicles. At the same time, two thirds of the oocytes die by apoptosis, but the link between oocyte nest breakdown and oocyte death is unclear. Although mechanisms controlling breakdown of nests into individual oocytes and selection of oocytes for survival are currently unknown, steroid hormones may play a role. Treatment of neonatal mice with natural or synthetic estrogens results in abnormal multiple oocyte follicles in adult ovaries. Neonatal genistein treatment inhibits nest breakdown suggesting multiple oocyte follicles are nests that did not break down. Here we investigated the role of estrogen signaling in nest breakdown and oocyte survival. We characterized an ovary organ culture system that recapitulates nest breakdown, reduction in oocyte number, primordial follicle assembly, and follicle growth in vitro. We found that estradiol, progesterone, and genistein inhibit nest breakdown and primordial follicle assembly but have no effect on oocyte number both in organ culture and in vivo. Fetal ovaries, removed from their normal environment of high levels of pregnancy hormones, underwent premature nest breakdown and oocyte loss that was rescued by addition of estradiol or progesterone. Our results implicate hormone signaling in ovarian differentiation with decreased estrogen and progesterone at birth as the primary signal to initiate oocyte nest breakdown and follicle assembly. These findings also provide insight into the mechanism of multiple oocyte follicle formation.

Tumor necrosis factor (TNF) receptor type 2 is an important mediator of TNF alpha function in the mouse ovary.

It is believed that a finite pool of primordial follicles is established during embryonic and neonatal life. At birth, the mouse ovary consists of clusters of interconnected oocytes surrounded by pregranulosa cells. Shortly after birth these structures, termed germ cell cysts or nests (GCN), break down to facilitate primordial follicle formation. Tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF) is a widely expressed protein with myriad functions. TNF is expressed in the ovary and may regulate GCN breakdown in rats. We investigated whether it participates in GCN breakdown and follicle formation in mice by using an in vitro ovary culture system as well as mutant animal models. We found that TNF and both receptors (TNFRSF1A and TNFRSF1B) are expressed in neonatal mouse ovaries and that TNF promotes oocyte death in neonatal ovaries in vitro. However, deletion of either receptor did not affect follicle endowment, suggesting that TNF does not regulate GCN breakdown in vivo. Tnfrsf1b deletion led to an apparent acceleration of follicular growth and a concomitant expansion of the primordial follicle population. This expansion of the primordial follicle population does not appear to be due to decreased primordial follicle atresia, although this cannot be ruled out completely. This study demonstrates that mouse oocytes express both TNF receptors and are sensitive to TNF-induced death. Additionally, TNFRSF1B is demonstrated to be an important mediator of TNF function in the mouse ovary and an important regulator of folliculogenesis.

Effects of estrogenic compounds on neonatal oocyte development.

In the mouse, oocytes develop in germline cysts that undergo breakdown resulting in primordial follicles, consisting of a single oocyte surrounded by granulosa cells. During this process, approximately two-thirds of the oocytes die. Exposure of female mice to environmental estrogens can alter oocyte development, limiting the number of primordial follicles that can be used for reproduction. Here we asked whether exposure to synthetic estrogens, diethylstilbestrol, ethinyl estradiol and bisphenol A affected perinatal oocyte development. Neonatal mice were injected with a low or high dose of each compound on postnatal days (PND) 1-4 and ovaries analyzed on PND5. Cyst breakdown, oocyte survival and follicle development were altered. The percentage of single oocyte was reduced from 84% in controls to 50-75%. The oocyte number per section was increased from 8 to 12-16. Follicle activation was reduced with 62% primordial follicles in controls to over 80% in most cases.

Estrogen can signal through multiple pathways to regulate oocyte cyst breakdown and primordial follicle assembly in the neonatal mouse ovary.

During mouse embryonic development, oocytes develop in germline cysts, formed by several rounds of cell division followed by incomplete cytokinesis. Shortly after birth, cysts break down and individual oocytes are enclosed by granulosa cells to form primordial follicles. At the same time, two-thirds of the oocytes die by apoptosis with only one-third surviving. We have previously shown that the steroid hormones, estradiol (E(2)), and progesterone as well as the phytoestrogen genistein can inhibit cyst breakdown and primordial follicle assembly. However, the mechanisms by which steroid hormones regulate oocyte cyst breakdown and selective oocyte survival are unknown. Here, we confirmed the expression of estrogen receptor (ER) mRNA and protein in neonatal mouse ovaries using reverse transcriptase-PCR, western blotting, and immunocytochemistry. We then used ER-specific agonists and antagonists to understand the mechanism of estrogen signaling. 4,4',4''-(4-propyl-[1H]-pyrazole-1,3,5-triyl)trisphenol, an ER alpha-selective agonist, and 2,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-propionitrile, an ER beta-selective agonist, both inhibited cyst breakdown in organ culture, suggesting that E(2) can signal through both the receptors to regulate cyst breakdown. ICI 182,780, an ER antagonist, completely blocked E(2)'s action. 1,3-bis(4-hydroxyphenyl)-4-methyl-5-[4-(2-piperidinylethoxy)phenol]-1H-pyrazole dihydrochloride, an ER alpha-specific antagonist, fully blocked E(2)'s effect on oocyte cyst breakdown and primordial follicle assembly and (R,R)-5,11-diethyl-5,6,11,12-tetrahydro-2,8-chrysenediol, an ER beta-specific antagonist, partially blocked E(2), further supporting the idea that both receptors are involved in estrogen signaling in neonatal oocyte development. E(2) conjugated to BSA, which can only exert effects at the membrane, was able to inhibit cyst breakdown, implying that E(2) could also function through a membrane-bound ER to regulate cyst breakdown.