A meta-analysis and review examining a possible role for oxidative stress and singlet oxygen in diverse diseases.

From kinetic data (k, T) we calculated the thermodynamic parameters for various processes (nucleation, elongation, fibrillization, etc.) of proteinaceous diseases that are related to the ß-amyloid protein (Alzheimer's), to tau protein (Alzheimer's, Pick's), to α-synuclein (Parkinson's), prion, amylin (type II diabetes), and to α-crystallin (cataract). Our calculations led to ΔG≠ values that vary in the range 92.8-127 kJ mol-1 at 310 K. A value of ∼10-30 kJ mol-1 is the activation energy for the diffusion of reactants, depending on the reaction and the medium. The energy needed for the excitation of O2 from the ground to the first excited state (1Δg, singlet oxygen) is equal to 92 kJ mol-1 So, the ΔG≠ is equal to the energy needed for the excitation of ground state oxygen to the singlet oxygen (1Δg first excited) state. The similarity of the ΔG≠ values is an indication that a common mechanism in the above disorders may be taking place. We attribute this common mechanism to the (same) role of the oxidative stress and specifically of singlet oxygen, (1Δg), to the above-mentioned processes: excitation of ground state oxygen to the singlet oxygen, 1Δg, state (92 kJ mol-1), and reaction of the empty π* orbital with high electron density regions of biomolecules (∼10-30 kJ mol-1 for their diffusion). The ΔG≠ for cases of heat-induced cell killing (cancer) lie also in the above range at 310 K. The present paper is a review and meta-analysis of literature data referring to neurodegenerative and other disorders.

Kinetic and theoretical studies on the protonation of [Ni(2-SC6H4N){PhP(CH2CH2PPh2)2}]+: nitrogen versus sulfur as the protonation site.

The complexes [Ni(4-Spy)(triphos)]BPh(4) and [Ni(2-Spy)(triphos)]BPh(4) {triphos = PhP(CH(2)CH(2)PPh(2))(2), 4-Spy = 4-pyridinethiolate, 2-Spy = 2-pyridinethiolate} have been prepared and characterized both spectroscopically and using X-ray crystallography. In both complexes the triphos is a tridentate ligand. However, [Ni(4-Spy)(triphos)](+) comprises a 4-coordinate, square-planar nickel with the 4-Spy ligand bound to the nickel through the sulfur while [Ni(2-Spy)(triphos)](+) contains a 5-coordinate, trigonal-bipyramidal nickel with a bidentate 2-Spy ligand bound to the nickel through both sulfur and nitrogen. The kinetics of the reactions of [Ni(4-Spy)(triphos)](+) and [Ni(2-Spy)(triphos)](+) with lutH(+) (lut = 2,6-dimethylpyridine) in MeCN have been studied using stopped-flow spectrophotometry, and the two complexes show very different reactivities. The reaction of [Ni(4-Spy)(triphos)](+) with lutH(+) is complete within the deadtime of the stopped-flow apparatus (2 ms) and corresponds to protonation of the nitrogen. However, upon mixing [Ni(2-Spy)(triphos)](+) and lutH(+) a reaction is observed (on the seconds time scale) to produce an equilibrium mixture. The mechanistic interpretation of the rate law has been aided by the application of MSINDO semiempirical and ADF calculations. The kinetics and calculations are consistent with the reaction between [Ni(2-Spy)(triphos)](+) and lutH(+) involving initial protonation of the sulfur followed by dissociation of the nitrogen and subsequent transfer of the proton from sulfur to nitrogen. The factors affecting the position of protonation and the coupling of the coordination state of the 2-pyridinethiolate ligand to the site of protonation are discussed.

Kinetics and Mechanisms of the Chromium(III) Reactions with 2,4- and 2,5-Dihydroxybenzoic Acids in Weak Acidic Aqueous Solutions.

The reactions of 2,4- and 2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acids (dihydroxybenzoic acid, DHBA) with chromium(III) in weak acidic aqueous solutions have been shown to take place in at least two stages. The first stage of the reactions has an observed rate constant k(1(obs)) = k(1)[DHBA] + C and the corresponding activation parameters are DeltaH(1(2,4)) ( not equal) = 49, 5 kJ/mol(-1), DeltaS(1(2,4)) ( not equal) = -103, 7 J mol(-1) K(-1), DeltaH(1(2,5)) ( not equal) = 60, 3 kJ/mol(-1), and DeltaS(1(2,5)) ( not equal) = -68, 0 J mol(-1) K(-1). These are composite activation parameters and the breaking of the strong intramolecular hydrogen bonding in the two ligands is suggested to be the first step of the (composite) first stage of the reactions. The second stage is ligand concentration independent and is thus attributed to a chelation process. The corresponding activation parameters are DeltaH(2(2,4)) ( not equal) = 45, 13 kJ/mol(-1), DeltaS(2(2,4)) ( not equal) = -185, 9 J mol(-1) K(-1), DeltaH(2(2,5)) ( not equal) = 54, 55 kJ/mol(-1), and DeltaS(2(2,5)) ( not equal) = -154, 8 J mol(-1) K(-1). The activation parameters support an associative mechanism for the second stage of the reactions. The various substitution processes are accompanied by proton release, resulting in pH decrease.

Kinetics and Mechanism of the Reaction between Chromium(III) and 2,3-Dihydroxybenzoic Acid in Weak Acidic Aqueous Solutions.

The reaction between chromium(III) and 2,3-dihydroxybenzoic acid (2,3-DHBA) takes place in at least three stages, involving various intermediates. The ligand (2,3-DHBA)-to-chromium(III) ratio in the final product of the reaction is 1 : 1. The first stage is suggested to be the reaction of [Cr(H(2)O)(5)(OH)](2+) with the ligand in weak acidic aqueous solutions that follows an I(d) mechanism. The second and third stages do not depend on the concentrations of chromium(III), and their activation parameters are DeltaH( not equal) (2(obs)) = 61.2 +/- 3.1 kJmol(-1), DeltaS( not equal) (2(obs)) = -91.1 +/- 11.0 JK(-1)mol(-1), DeltaH( not equal) (3(obs)) = 124.5 +/- 8.7 kJmol(-1), and DeltaS( not equal) (3(obs)) = 95.1 +/- 29.0 JK(-1)mol(-1). These two stages are proposed to proceed via associative mechanisms. The positive value of DeltaS( not equal) (3(obs)) can be explained by the opening of a four-membered ring (positive entropy change) and the breaking of a hydrogen bond (positive entropy change) at the associative step of the replacement of the carboxyl group by the hydroxyl group at the chromium(III) center (negative entropy change in associative mechanisms). The reactions are accompanied by proton release, as shown by the pH decrease.

A Possible Role for Singlet Oxygen in the Degradation of Various Antioxidants. A Meta-Analysis and Review of Literature Data.

The thermodynamic parameters Eact, ΔH≠, ΔS≠, and ΔG≠ for various processes involving antioxidants were calculated using literature kinetic data (k, T). The ΔG≠ values of the antioxidants' processes vary in the range 91.27-116.46 kJmol-1 at 310 K. The similarity of the ΔG≠ values (for all of the antioxidants studied) is supported to be an indication that a common mechanism in the above antioxidant processes may be taking place. A value of about 10-30 kJmol-1 is the activation energy for the diffusion of reactants depending on the reaction and the medium. The energy 92 kJmol-1 is needed for the excitation of O2 from the ground to the first excited state (¹Δg, singlet oxygen). We suggest the same role of the oxidative stress and specifically of singlet oxygen to the processes of antioxidants as in the processes of proteinaceous diseases. We therefore suggest a competition between the various antioxidants and the proteins of proteinaceous diseases in capturing singlet oxygen's empty π* orbital. The concentration of the antioxidants could be a crucial factor for the competition. Also, the structures of the antioxidant molecules play a significant role since the various structures have a different number of regions of high electron density.

Mechanism of proton transfer to coordinated thiolates: encapsulation of acid stabilizes precursor intermediate.

Earlier kinetic studies on the protonation of the coordinated thiolate in the square-planar [Ni(SC6H4R'-4)(triphos)](+) (R' = NO2, Cl, H, Me or MeO) by lutH(+) (lut = 2,6-dimethylpyridine) indicate a two-step mechanism involving initial formation of a (kinetically detectable) precursor intermediate, {[Ni(SC6H4R'-4)(triphos)]···Hlut}(2+) (K(R)1), followed by an intramolecular proton transfer step (k(R)2). The analogous [Ni(SR)(triphos)]BPh4 {R = Et, Bu(t) or Cy; triphos = PhP(CH2CH2PPh2)2} have been prepared and characterized by spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. Similar to the aryl thiolate complexes, [Ni(SR)(triphos)](+) are protonated by lutH(+) in an equilibrium reaction but the observed rate law is simpler. Analysis of the kinetic data for both [Ni(SR)(triphos)](+) and [Ni(SC6H4R'-4)(triphos)](+) shows that both react by the same mechanism, but that K(R)1 is largest when the thiolate is poorly basic, or the 4-R' substituent in the aryl thiolates is electron-withdrawing. These results indicate that it is both NH···S hydrogen bonding and encapsulation of the bound lutH(+) (by the phenyl groups on triphos) which stabilize the precursor intermediate.

Kinetics and mechanism of the reaction between chromium(III) and 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionic (dihydrocaffeic) acid in weak acidic aqueous solutions.

The reaction of 3,4-dihydroxyphenylpropionic acid (dihydrocaffeic acid, hydcafH3) with chromium(III) in weak acidic aqueous solutions has been shown to take place through various oxygen-bonded intermediates. The formation of the oxygen-bonded complexes upon substitution of water molecules of the chromium(III) coordination sphere takes place in at least three stages, the first of which has an observed rate constant k1(obs)=k1K0'[hydcafH3]/[H+] where K0' corresponds to the Cr(H2O)6(3+) complex dissociation equilibrium. The second and third stages are ligand concentration independent and are thus attributed to isomerisation and chelation processes. The corresponding activation parameters are DeltaH2(not equal)=78+/-3 kJmol(-1), DeltaS2(not equal)=-49+/-9 JK(-1)mol(-1), DeltaH3(not equal)=60+/-9 kJmol(-1) and DeltaS3(not equal)=-112+/-39 JK(-1)mol(-1). The kinetic results support associative mechanisms and the nature of the electronic spectra a catecholic-type of coordination at the pH and concentration range studied and reported in this paper. The associatively activated substitution processes are accompanied by proton release causing a pH decrease. At lower acid concentration oxidation of the ligand takes place with concomitant high increase in the UV and VIS absorbance.

Reaction of chromium(III) with 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid: kinetics and mechanism in weak acidic aqueous solutions.

The interactions between chromium(III) and 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic acid (3,4-DHBA) were studied resulting in the formation of oxygen-bonded complexes upon substitution of water molecules in the chromium(III) coordination sphere. The experimental results show that the reaction takes place in at least three stages, involving various intermediates. The first stage was found to be linearly dependent on ligand concentration k(1(obs))' = k(0) + k(1(obs))[3, 4-DHBA], and the corresponding activation parameters were calculated as follows: DeltaH(1(obs)) ( not equal) = 51.2 +/- 11.5 kJ mol(-1), DeltaS(1(obs)) ( not equal) = -97.3 +/- 28.9 J mol(-1) K(-1) (composite activation parameters) . The second and third stages, which are kinetically indistinguishable, do not depend on the concentrations of ligand and chromium(III), accounting for isomerization and chelation processes, respectively. The corresponding activation parameters are DeltaH(2(obs)) ( not equal) = 44.5 +/- 5.0 kJ mol(-1), DeltaS(2(obs)) ( not equal) = -175.8 +/- 70.3 J mol(-1) K(-1). The observed stages are proposed to proceed via interchange dissociative (I(d), first stage) and associative (second and third stages) mechanisms. The reactions are accompanied by proton release, as is shown by the pH decrease.

Kinetics and mechanism of the reaction between chromium(III) and 3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl-propenoic acid (caffeic acid) in weak acidic aqueous solutions.

Our study of the complexation of 3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl-propenoic acid by chromium(III) could give information on the way that this metal ion is available to plants. The reaction between chromium(III) and 3,4-dihydroxy-phenyl-propenoic acid in weak acidic aqueous solutions has been shown to take place by at least three stages. The first stage corresponds to substitution (I(d) mechanism) of water molecule from the Cr(H(2)O)(5)OH(2+) coordination sphere by a ligand molecule. A very rapid protonation equilibrium, which follows, favors the aqua species. The second and the third stages are chromium(III) and ligand concentration independent and are attributed to isomerisation and chelation processes. The corresponding activation parameters are DeltaH(2(obs)) ( not equal) = 28.6 +/- 2.9 kJ mol(-1), DeltaS(2(obs)) ( not equal) = -220 +/- 10 J K(-1)mol(-1), DeltaH(3(obs)) ( not equal) = 62.9 +/- 6.7 kJ mol(-1) and DeltaS(3(obs)) ( not equal) = -121 +/- 22 J K(-1)mol(-1). The kinetic results suggest associative mechanisms for the two steps. The associatively activated substitution processes are accompanied by proton release causing pH decrease.