FTY720 ameliorates MOG-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by suppressing both cellular and humoral immune responses.

FTY720, an oral sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptor modulator, has shown efficacy in phase II trials in patients with relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS). Although this molecule is thought to immunosuppress by inhibiting lymphocyte egress from the lymph nodes, the full spectrum of FTY720's actions has not yet been uncovered. In this study, we investigated the effects of FTY720 treatment on disease severity and histopathology of MOG-induced experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in the dark agouti (DA) rat, a model that closely mimics several features of MS. The effects of FTY720 on T-cell subsets, anti-MOG antibody production, and mRNA expression of a number of cytokines and other genes were also examined. Commencement of treatment before disease onset prevented the appearance of clinical disease. Therapeutic treatment after established disease reduced clinical scores and substantially attenuated inflammation, demyelination, and axon loss. EAE suppression was associated with a reduction in all measured T-cell subsets in blood and spleen and a significant decrease in serum IgG(2a) levels. However, in the lymph nodes, all T-cell subsets except for naïve T cells and recent thymic emigrants remained unaffected. In addition, FTY720 treatment led to a significant inhibition in interferon-gamma, inducible nitric oxide synthase, and glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor mRNA expression in the MOG-EAE spinal cord. In conclusion, our findings indicate that FTY720-mediated S1P receptor modulation ameliorates chronic relapsing MOG-EAE by suppressing both cellular and humoral immune responses.

An alternatively spliced form of glycogen synthase kinase-3beta is targeted to growing neurites and growth cones.

The serine/threonine kinase glycogen synthase kinase-3beta (GSK-3beta) is expressed in two, alternatively spliced, isoforms: a short form (GSK-3beta1) and a long form containing a 13 amino acid insert in the catalytic domain (GSK-3beta2). We examined the expression of these isoforms in the rat using specific antibodies and found that GSK-3beta2, in contrast to GSK-3beta1, is only expressed in the nervous system. The highest levels of GSK-3beta2 are found in the developing nervous system but expression persists into adulthood. In the adult central nervous system the highest expression of GSK-3beta2 occurs in regions with a high proportion of white matter, suggesting that GSK-3beta2 is expressed in axons. Consistent with this finding, sub-cellular fractionation of neonatal rat brain showed that GSK-3beta2 is present in fractions enriched in neurites and growth cones. Furthermore, we found that when we separated neuronal cell bodies from neurites by culturing embryonic cortical neurons in neurite outgrowth inserts, GSK-3beta2 was present in both compartments. Finally, a rabbit polyclonal antibody raised to the 13 amino acid insert of GSK-3beta2 (anti-8A) that specifically recognises GSK-3beta2, labels the cell body, including the nucleus, neurites and growth cones of embryonic neurons in culture. To compare functionally the two isoforms, we performed in vitro kinase assays. These showed that GSK-3beta1 is more efficient at phosphorylating the microtubule-associated protein MAP1B than GSK-3beta2, consistent with previous findings with the microtubule-associated protein tau. However, when co-expressed with MAP1B in COS-7 cells, both GSK-3beta isoforms equally efficiently phosphorylated MAP1B and had a similar influence on the regulation of microtubule dynamics by MAP1B in these cells. We conclude that the alternatively spliced isoform of GSK-3beta, GSK-3beta2, is neuron-specific and has overlapping activities with GSK-3beta1.

Optimization of sphingosine-1-phosphate-1 receptor agonists: effects of acidic, basic, and zwitterionic chemotypes on pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles.

The efficacy of the recently approved drug fingolimod (FTY720) in multiple sclerosis patients results from the action of its phosphate metabolite on sphingosine-1-phosphate S1P1 receptors, while a variety of side effects have been ascribed to its S1P3 receptor activity. Although S1P and phospho-fingolimod share the same structural elements of a zwitterionic headgroup and lipophilic tail, a variety of chemotypes have been found to show S1P1 receptor agonism. Here we describe a study of the tolerance of the S1P1 and S1P3 receptors toward bicyclic heterocycles of systematically varied shape and connectivity incorporating acidic, basic, or zwitterionic headgroups. We compare their physicochemical properties, their performance in in vitro and in vivo pharmacokinetic models, and their efficacy in peripheral lymphocyte lowering. The campaign resulted in the identification of several potent S1P1 receptor agonists with good selectivity vs S1P3 receptors, efficacy at <1 mg/kg oral doses, and developability properties suitable for progression into preclinical development.

Dynamic association of tau with neuronal membranes is regulated by phosphorylation.

Tau is an abundant cytosolic protein which regulates cytoskeletal stability by associating with microtubules in a phosphorylation-dependent manner. We have found a significant proportion of tau is located in the membrane fraction of rat cortical neurons and is dephosphorylated, at least at Tau-1 (Ser199/Ser202), AT8 (Ser199/Ser202/Thr205) and PHF-1 (Ser396/Ser404) epitopes. Inhibition of tau kinases casein kinase 1 (CK1) or glycogen synthase kinase-3 decreased tau phosphorylation and significantly increased amounts of tau in the membrane fraction. Mutation of serine/threonine residues to glutamate to mimic phosphorylation in the N-terminal, but not C-terminal, region of tau prevented its membrane localization in transfected cells, demonstrating that the phosphorylation state of tau directly impacts its localization. Inhibiting CK1 in neurons lacking the tyrosine kinase fyn also induced tau dephosphorylation but did not affect its membrane association. Furthermore, inhibition of CK1 increased binding of neuronal tau to the fyn-SH3 domain. We conclude that trafficking of tau between the cytosol and the neuronal membrane is dynamically regulated by tau phosphorylation through a mechanism dependent on fyn expression.

Discovery of a brain-penetrant S1P3-sparing direct agonist of the S1P1 and S1P5 receptors efficacious at low oral dose.

2-Amino-2-(4-octylphenethyl)propane-1,3-diol 1 (fingolimod, FTY720) has been recently marketed in the United States for the treatment of patients with remitting relapsing multiple sclerosis (RRMS). Its efficacy has been primarily linked to the agonism on T cells of S1P(1), one of the five sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) G-protein-coupled receptors, while its cardiovascular side effects have been associated with activity at S1P(3). Emerging data suggest that the ability of this molecule to cross the blood-brain barrier and to interact with both S1P(1) and S1P(5) in the central nervous system (CNS) may contribute to its efficacy in treating patients with RRMS. We have recently disclosed the structure of an advanced, first generation S1P(3)-sparing S1P(1) agonist, a zwitterion with limited CNS exposure. In this Article, we highlight our strategy toward the identification of CNS-penetrant S1P(3)-sparing S1P(1) and S1P(5) agonists resulting in the discovery of 5-(3-{2-[2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl]-5-methyl-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-6-isoquinolinyl}-1,2,4-oxadiazol-5-yl)-2-[(1-methylethyl)oxy]benzonitrile 15. Its exceptional in vivo potency and good pharmacokinetic properties translate into a very low predicted therapeutic dose in human (<1 mg p.o. once daily).

MAP kinase pathways in neuronal cell death.

The signaling pathways which contribute to neuronal death during development, aging and disease have been extensively studied. While initial efforts focused on developmental death, increasing evidence suggests that mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways play a role in human pathology. In particular, the c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs), mitogen-activated protein kinases activated by extracellular stimuli including stress, are a major focus. Knock-out mouse studies have demonstrated that removing particular JNK genes can reduce the severity in various disease scenarios, including those which are used to model Parkinson's disease and cerebral ischemia. In addition, activation of JNKs can be seen in human disease tissue. In this review we bring together the evidence for JNK being an important regulator of neuronal loss and outline the advancement of small molecule inhibitors for future therapeutic intervention.

Expression and purification of functional JNK2beta2: perspectives on high-level production of recombinant MAP kinases.

The mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases are a group of serine/threonine kinases that mediate intracellular signal transduction in response to environmental stimuli including stress, growth factors, and various cytokines. Of this family, the c-Jun N-terminal kinases (JNKs) are members which, depending on cell type, have been shown to activate the transcription of genes involved in the inflammatory response, apoptosis, and hypertrophy. Here we report the use Baculovirus/Sf9 cells to produce milligram quantities of recombinant JNK2beta2 substrate which could be purified to >90% as judged by SDS-PAGE. In addition, we report a novel method for the site-specific biotinylation for this enzyme and demonstrate that the biotinylated product is an authentic substrate of the upstream kinases MKK4 and 7 and can phosphorylate a downstream target, ATF-2. We also show that the phosphorylated product can be captured efficiently on streptavidin-coated beads for use in scintillation proximity assays.