The sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 modulator ponesimod repairs cuprizone-induced demyelination and induces oligodendrocyte differentiation.

Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor (S1PR) modulators are clinically used to treat relapse-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS) and the early phase of progressive MS when inflammation still prevails. In the periphery, S1PR modulators prevent lymphocyte egress from lymph nodes, hence hampering neuroinflammation. Recent findings suggest a role for S1PR modulation in remyelination. As the Giα-coupled S1P1 subtype is the most prominently expressed S1PR in oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs), selective modulation (functional antagonism) of S1P1 may have direct effects on OPC functionality. We hypothesized that functional antagonism of S1P1 by ponesimod induces remyelination by boosting OPC differentiation. In the cuprizone mouse model of demyelination, we found ponesimod to decrease the latency time of visual evoked potentials compared to vehicle conditions, which is indicative of functional remyelination. In addition, the Y maze spontaneous alternations test revealed that ponesimod reversed cuprizone-induced working memory deficits. Myelin basic protein (MBP) immunohistochemistry and transmission electron microscopy of the corpus callosum revealed an increase in myelination upon ponesimod treatment. Moreover, treatment with ponesimod alone or in combination with A971432, an S1P5 monoselective modulator, significantly increased primary mouse OPC differentiation based on O4 immunocytochemistry. In conclusion, S1P1 functional antagonism by ponesimod increases remyelination in the cuprizone model of demyelination and significantly increases OPC differentiation in vitro.

Selective PDE4 subtype inhibition provides new opportunities to intervene in neuroinflammatory versus myelin damaging hallmarks of multiple sclerosis.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by focal inflammatory lesions and prominent demyelination. Even though the currently available therapies are effective in treating the initial stages of disease, they are unable to halt or reverse disease progression into the chronic progressive stage. Thus far, no repair-inducing treatments are available for progressive MS patients. Hence, there is an urgent need for the development of new therapeutic strategies either targeting the destructive immunological demyelination or boosting endogenous repair mechanisms. Using in vitro, ex vivo, and in vivo models, we demonstrate that selective inhibition of phosphodiesterase 4 (PDE4), a family of enzymes that hydrolyzes and inactivates cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), reduces inflammation and promotes myelin repair. More specifically, we segregated the myelination-promoting and anti-inflammatory effects into a PDE4D- and PDE4B-dependent process respectively. We show that inhibition of PDE4D boosts oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPC) differentiation and enhances (re)myelination of both murine OPCs and human iPSC-derived OPCs. In addition, PDE4D inhibition promotes in vivo remyelination in the cuprizone model, which is accompanied by improved spatial memory and reduced visual evoked potential latency times. We further identified that PDE4B-specific inhibition exerts anti-inflammatory effects since it lowers in vitro monocytic nitric oxide (NO) production and improves in vivo neurological scores during the early phase of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). In contrast to the pan PDE4 inhibitor roflumilast, the therapeutic dose of both the PDE4B-specific inhibitor A33 and the PDE4D-specific inhibitor Gebr32a did not trigger emesis-like side effects in rodents. Finally, we report distinct PDE4D isoform expression patterns in human area postrema neurons and human oligodendroglia lineage cells. Using the CRISPR-Cas9 system, we confirmed that pde4d1/2 and pde4d6 are the key targets to induce OPC differentiation. Collectively, these data demonstrate that gene specific PDE4 inhibitors have potential as novel therapeutic agents for targeting the distinct disease processes of MS.

Oxidative stress and impaired oligodendrocyte precursor cell differentiation in neurological disorders.

Oligodendrocyte precursor cells (OPCs) account for 5% of the resident parenchymal central nervous system glial cells. OPCs are not only a back-up for the loss of oligodendrocytes that occurs due to brain injury or inflammation-induced demyelination (remyelination) but are also pivotal in plastic processes such as learning and memory (adaptive myelination). OPC differentiation into mature myelinating oligodendrocytes is controlled by a complex transcriptional network and depends on high metabolic and mitochondrial demand. Mounting evidence shows that OPC dysfunction, culminating in the lack of OPC differentiation, mediates the progression of neurodegenerative disorders such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Importantly, neurodegeneration is characterised by oxidative and carbonyl stress, which may primarily affect OPC plasticity due to the high metabolic demand and a limited antioxidant capacity associated with this cell type. The underlying mechanisms of how oxidative/carbonyl stress disrupt OPC differentiation remain enigmatic and a focus of current research efforts. This review proposes a role for oxidative/carbonyl stress in interfering with the transcriptional and metabolic changes required for OPC differentiation. In particular, oligodendrocyte (epi)genetics, cellular defence and repair responses, mitochondrial signalling and respiration, and lipid metabolism represent key mechanisms how oxidative/carbonyl stress may hamper OPC differentiation in neurodegenerative disorders. Understanding how oxidative/carbonyl stress impacts OPC function may pave the way for future OPC-targeted treatment strategies in neurodegenerative disorders.

Antagonism of Neurotensin Receptors in the Ventral Tegmental Area Decreases Methamphetamine Self-Administration and Methamphetamine Seeking in Mice.

Background: Neurotensin is a peptide that modulates central dopamine neurotransmission and dopamine-related behaviors. Methamphetamine self-administration increases neurotensin levels in the ventral tegmental area, but the consequences for self-administration behavior have not been described. Here we test the hypothesis that antagonizing neurotensin receptors in the ventral tegmental area attenuates the acquisition of methamphetamine self-administration and methamphetamine intake. Methods: We implanted mice with an indwelling catheter in the right jugular vein and bilateral cannulae directed at the ventral tegmental area. Mice were then trained to nose-poke for i.v. infusions of methamphetamine (0.1 mg/kg/infusion) on a fixed ratio 3 schedule. Results: Mice receiving microinfusions of the neurotensin NTS1/NTS2 receptor antagonist SR142948A in the ventral tegmental area (10 ng/side) prior to the first 5 days of methamphetamine self-administration required more sessions to reach acquisition criteria. Methamphetamine intake was decreased in SR142948A-treated mice both during training and later during maintenance of self-administration. Drug seeking during extinction, cue-induced reinstatement, and progressive ratio schedules was also reduced in the SR142948A group. The effects of SR142948A were not related to changes in basal locomotor activity or methamphetamine psychomotor properties. In both SR142948A- and saline-treated mice, a strong positive correlation between methamphetamine intake and enhanced locomotor activity was observed. Conclusion: Our results suggest that neurotensin input in the ventral tegmental area during initial methamphetamine exposure contributes to the acquisition of methamphetamine self-administration and modulates later intake and methamphetamine-seeking behavior in mice. Furthermore, our results highlight the role of endogenous neurotensin in the ventral tegmental area in the reinforcing efficacy of methamphetamine, independent of its psychomotor effects.

Neurotensin Induces Presynaptic Depression of D2 Dopamine Autoreceptor-Mediated Neurotransmission in Midbrain Dopaminergic Neurons.

Increased dopaminergic signaling is a hallmark of severe mesencephalic pathologies such as schizophrenia and psychostimulant abuse. Activity of midbrain dopaminergic neurons is under strict control of inhibitory D2 autoreceptors. Application of the modulatory peptide neurotensin (NT) to midbrain dopaminergic neurons transiently increases activity by decreasing D2 dopamine autoreceptor function, yet little is known about the mechanisms that underlie long-lasting effects. Here, we performed patch-clamp electrophysiology and fast-scan cyclic voltammetry in mouse brain slices to determine the effects of NT on dopamine autoreceptor-mediated neurotransmission. Application of the active peptide fragment NT8-13 produced synaptic depression that exhibited short- and long-term components. Sustained depression of D2 autoreceptor signaling required activation of the type 2 NT receptor and the protein phosphatase calcineurin. NT application increased paired-pulse ratios and decreased extracellular levels of somatodendritic dopamine, consistent with a decrease in presynaptic dopamine release. Surprisingly, we observed that electrically induced long-term depression of dopaminergic neurotransmission that we reported previously was also dependent on type 2 NT receptors and calcineurin. Because electrically induced depression, but not NT-induced depression, was blocked by postsynaptic calcium chelation, our findings suggest that endogenous NT may act through a local circuit to decrease presynaptic dopamine release. The current research provides a mechanism through which augmented NT release can produce a long-lasting increase in membrane excitability of midbrain dopamine neurons. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Whereas plasticity of glutamate synapses in the brain has been studied extensively, demonstrations of plasticity at dopaminergic synapses have been more elusive. By quantifying inhibitory neurotransmission between midbrain dopaminergic neurons in brain slices from mice we have discovered that the modulatory peptide neurotensin can induce a persistent synaptic depression by decreasing dopamine release. This depression of inhibitory synaptic input would be expected to increase excitability of dopaminergic neurons. Induction of the plasticity can be pharmacologically blocked by antagonists of either the protein phosphatase calcineurin or neurotensin receptors, and persists surprisingly long after a brief exposure to the peptide. Since neurotensin-dopamine interactions have been implicated in hyperdopaminergic pathologies, these findings describe a synaptic mechanism that could contribute to addiction and/or schizophrenia.

Dopamine-mediated striatal activity and function is enhanced in GlyRα2 knockout animals.

The glycine receptor alpha 2 (GlyRα2) is a ligand-gated ion channel which upon activation induces a chloride conductance. Here, we investigated the role of GlyRα2 in dopamine-stimulated striatal cell activity and behavior. We show that depletion of GlyRα2 enhances dopamine-induced increases in the activity of putative dopamine D1 receptor-expressing striatal projection neurons, but does not alter midbrain dopamine neuron activity. We next show that the locomotor response to d-amphetamine is enhanced in GlyRα2 knockout animals, and that this increase correlates with c-fos expression in the dorsal striatum. 3-D modeling revealed an increase in the neuronal ensemble size in the striatum in response to D-amphetamine in GlyRα2 KO mice. Finally, we show enhanced appetitive conditioning in GlyRα2 KO animals that is likely due to increased motivation, but not changes in associative learning or hedonic response. Taken together, we show that GlyRα2 is an important regulator of dopamine-stimulated striatal activity and function.

Impaired appetitively as well as aversively motivated behaviors and learning in PDE10A-deficient mice suggest a role for striatal signaling in evaluative salience attribution.

Phosphodiesterase 10A (PDE10A) hydrolyzes both cAMP and cGMP, and is a key element in the regulation of medium spiny neuron (MSN) activity in the striatum. In the present report, we investigated the effects of targeted disruption of PDE10A on spatial learning and memory as well as aversive and appetitive conditioning in C57BL/6J mice. Because of its putative role in motivational processes and reward learning, we also determined the expression of the immediate early gene zif268 in striatum and anterior cingulate cortex. Animals showed decreased response rates in scheduled appetitive operant conditioning, as well as impaired aversive conditioning in a passive avoidance task. Morris water maze performance revealed not-motor related spatial learning and memory deficits. Anxiety and social explorative behavior was not affected in PDE10A-deficient mice. Expression of zif268 was increased in striatum and anterior cingulate cortex, which suggests alterations in the neural connections between striatum and anterior cingulate cortex in PDE10A-deficient mice. The changes in behavior and plasticity in these PDE10A-deficient mice were in accordance with the proposed role of striatal MSNs and corticostriatal connections in evaluative salience attribution.

PDE inhibition in distinct cell types to reclaim the balance of synaptic plasticity.

Synapses are the functional units of the brain. They form specific contact points that drive neuronal communication and are highly plastic in their strength, density, and shape. A carefully orchestrated balance between synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning, i.e., the elimination of weak or redundant synapses, ensures adequate synaptic density. An imbalance between these two processes lies at the basis of multiple neuropathologies. Recent evidence has highlighted the importance of glia-neuron interactions in the synaptic unit, emphasized by glial phagocytosis of synapses and local excretion of inflammatory mediators. These findings warrant a closer look into the molecular basis of cell-signaling pathways in the different brain cells that are related to synaptic plasticity. In neurons, intracellular second messengers, such as cyclic guanosine or adenosine monophosphate (cGMP and cAMP, respectively), are known mediators of synaptic homeostasis and plasticity. Increased levels of these second messengers in glial cells slow down inflammation and neurodegenerative processes. These multi-faceted effects provide the opportunity to counteract excessive synapse loss by targeting cGMP and cAMP pathways in multiple cell types. Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) are specialized degraders of these second messengers, rendering them attractive targets to combat the detrimental effects of neurological disorders. Cellular and subcellular compartmentalization of the specific isoforms of PDEs leads to divergent downstream effects for these enzymes in the various central nervous system resident cell types. This review provides a detailed overview on the role of PDEs and their inhibition in the context of glia-neuron interactions in different neuropathologies characterized by synapse loss. In doing so, it provides a framework to support future research towards finding combinational therapy for specific neuropathologies.

Acute and subchronic PCP attenuate D2 autoreceptor signaling in substantia nigra dopamine neurons.

Phencyclidine (PCP) administration is commonly used to model schizophrenia in laboratory animals. While PCP is well-characterized as an antagonist of glutamate-sensitive N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, its effects on dopamine signaling are not well understood. Here we used whole-cell and cell-attached patch-clamp electrophysiology of substantia nigra dopamine neurons to determine the effects of acute and subchronic PCP exposure on both dopamine D2 autoreceptor-mediated currents and burst firing evoked by glutamate receptor activation. Acute PCP affected D2 autoreceptor-mediated currents through two apparently distinct mechanisms: a low-concentration dopamine transporter (DAT) inhibition and a high-concentration potassium (GIRK) channel inhibition. Subchronic administration of PCP (5 mg/kg, i.p., every 12 h for 7 days) decreased sensitivity to low dopamine concentrations, and also enhanced evoked burst firing of dopamine neurons. These findings suggest the effects of PCP on dopaminergic signaling in the midbrain could enhance burst firing and contribute to the development of schizophreniform behavior.

Targeting Phosphodiesterases-Towards a Tailor-Made Approach in Multiple Sclerosis Treatment.

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by heterogeneous clinical symptoms including gradual muscle weakness, fatigue, and cognitive impairment. The disease course of MS can be classified into a relapsing-remitting (RR) phase defined by periods of neurological disabilities, and a progressive phase where neurological decline is persistent. Pathologically, MS is defined by a destructive immunological and neuro-degenerative interplay. Current treatments largely target the inflammatory processes and slow disease progression at best. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop next-generation therapeutic strategies that target both neuroinflammatory and degenerative processes. It has been shown that elevating second messengers (cAMP and cGMP) is important for controlling inflammatory damage and inducing CNS repair. Phosphodiesterases (PDEs) have been studied extensively in a wide range of disorders as they breakdown these second messengers, rendering them crucial regulators. In this review, we provide an overview of the role of PDE inhibition in limiting pathological inflammation and stimulating regenerative processes in MS.

Tonically Active α2 Subunit-Containing Glycine Receptors Regulate the Excitability of Striatal Medium Spiny Neurons.

Medium spiny neurons (MSNs) of the dorsal striatum represent the first relay of cortico-striato-thalamic loop, responsible for the initiation of voluntary movements and motor learning. GABAergic transmission exerts the main inhibitory control of MSNs. However, MSNs also express chloride-permeable glycine receptors (GlyRs) although their subunit composition and functional significance in the striatum is unknown. Here, we studied the function of GlyRs in MSNs of young adult mice. We show that MSNs express functional GlyRs, with α2 being the main agonist binding subunit. These receptors are extrasynaptic and depolarizing at resting state. The pharmacological inhibition of GlyRs, as well as inactivation of the GlyR α2 subunit gene hyperpolarize the membrane potential of MSNs and increase their action potential firing offset. Mice lacking GlyR α2 showed impaired motor memory consolidation without any changes in the initial motor performance. Taken together, these results demonstrate that tonically active GlyRs regulate the firing properties of MSNs and may thus affect the function of basal ganglia.

Genetic deletion of PDE10A selectively impairs incentive salience attribution and decreases medium spiny neuron excitability.

The striatum is the main input structure to the basal ganglia and consists mainly out of medium spiny neurons. The numerous spines on their dendrites render them capable of integrating cortical glutamatergic inputs with a motivational dopaminergic signal that originates in the midbrain. This integrative function is thought to underly attribution of incentive salience, a process that is severely disrupted in schizophrenic patients. Phosphodiesterase 10A (PDE10A) is located mainly to the striatal medium spiny neurons and hydrolyses cAMP and cGMP, key determinants of MSN signaling. We show here that genetic depletion of PDE10A critically mediates attribution of salience to reward-predicting cues, evident in impaired performance in PDE10A knockout mice in an instrumentally conditioned reinforcement task. We furthermore report modest impairment of latent inhibition in PDE10A knockout mice, and unaltered prepulse inhibition. We suggest that the lack of effect on PPI is due to the pre-attentional nature of this task. Finally, we performed whole-cell patch clamp recordings and confirm suggested changes in intrinsic membrane excitability. A decrease in spontaneous firing in striatal medium spiny neurons was found. These data show that PDE10A plays a pivotal role in striatal signaling and striatum-mediated salience attribution.

Selective inhibition of phosphodiesterase 10A impairs appetitive and aversive conditioning and incentive salience attribution.

The pharmacological effect of the selective PDE10A inhibitor 2-[4-(1-methyl-4-pyridin-4-yl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-phenoxymethyl]-quinoline succinic acid (MP-10) on aversively and appetitively motivated behavior in C57BL/6J mice was examined. MP-10 dose-dependently impaired performance on a highly demanding reward schedule during appetitive conditioning. The compound further affected cue-based, but not contextual aversive conditioning. Finally, dose-dependent impaired performance in an instrumentally conditioned reinforcement (ICR) task was found. This suggests that the observed behavioral effects of MP-10 can be at least partially ascribed to impaired incentive salience attribution. MP-10 administration dose-dependently enhanced striatal expression of the immediate early gene Zif268, which suggest that MP-10 affects the studied motivated behaviors by enhancing PDE10A-regulated striatal signaling. Striatal signaling thus appears to be crucial in processes that control reward-motivated behavior in general, and incentive salience attribution in particular. Continued research will prove valuable towards a better understanding of psychopathologies that affect reward-motivated behaviors, such as drug addiction and schizophrenia.