Correction to: Antimicrobial-coated sutures to decrease surgical site infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

In the original version of this article, reference citations found in Tables 2, 3, and 4 contain errors in linking. The correct tables are reproduced below.

Antimicrobial-coated sutures to decrease surgical site infections: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

To investigate the effectiveness of antimicrobial-coated sutures compared with non-coated sutures in reducing surgical site infection (SSI) and develop recommendations for World Health Organization (WHO) SSI prevention guidelines. We searched Medline, Embase, Cinahl, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and WHO Global Health from 1990-16/02/2015 with language restricted to English, Spanish, and French. Meta-analysis was performed with a random-effects model. Meta-regression analysis assessed whether the effect of antimicrobial coating changed according to the type of suture and surgery. Subgroup analyses were based on types of sutures. Quality of the retrieved evidence was assessed using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation. Thirteen randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and five observational studies (OBSs) met the inclusion criteria. Antimicrobial sutures significantly reduced SSI risk (for RCTs: OR 0.72, 95 % CI 0.59-0.88, p = 0.001, I2 = 14 %; for OBSs: OR 0.58, 95 % CI 0.40-0.83, p = 0.003, I2 = 22 %). Only Vicryl Plus vs Vicryl revealed consistent results in favor of antimicrobial sutures (for seven RCTs: OR 0.62, 95 % CI 0.44-0.88, p = 0.007, I2 = 3 %; for four OBSs: OR 0.58, 95 % CI 0.37-0.92, p = 0.02, I2 = 41 %). The effect of antimicrobial coating was similar between different suture, wound, and procedure types. Quality of RCT evidence was moderate, and OBS evidence was very low quality. Triclosan-coated sutures may reduce SSI risk. However, the available evidence is of moderate/low quality, and many studies had conflicts of interest.

Randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind clinical trial to evaluate the efficacy of polyhexanide for topical decolonization of MRSA carriers.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of polyhexanide (Prontoderm(®)) in eliminating MRSA carriage. METHODS: In a 1900 bed teaching hospital, MRSA-colonized patients were randomized into a double-blind, placebo-controlled superiority trial between January 2011 and July 2014. Patients were treated with either polyhexanide or placebo applied to the anterior nares (thrice daily) and skin (once daily) for 10 days. The primary outcome was MRSA decolonization at day 28 (D28) after the end of treatment assessed by ITT responder and PP analyses (microbiological follow-up ± 7 days and topical treatment ≥ 5 days). Secondary outcomes included safety, emergence of resistance and MRSA genotype changes. Registered trial number ISRCTN02288276. RESULTS: Of 2590 patients screened, 146 (polyhexanide group, 71; placebo group, 75) were included. ITT analysis showed that 24/71 (33.8%) patients in the polyhexanide group versus 22/75 (29.3%) in the placebo group were MRSA-free at D28 (risk difference, 4.5%; 95% CI, -10.6% to 19.5%; P = 0.56). PP analysis confirmed the results with 19/53 (35.8%) decolonized polyhexanide-treated patients versus 17/56 (30.4%) in the placebo arm (risk difference, 5.5%; 95% CI, -12.2% to 23%; P = 0.54). Nine serious adverse events occurred in the polyhexanide group versus 12 in the placebo group; none was attributable to study medication. Emergence of polyhexanide resistance or cross-resistance between polyhexanide and chlorhexidine was not observed. No case of exogenous recolonization by a genotypically different MRSA strain was documented. CONCLUSIONS: This study suggests that under real-life conditions, a single polyhexanide decolonization course is not effective in eradicating MRSA carriage.

[Deep soft tissue infections]. / Infections profondes des tissus mous.

The clinical presentations of deep soft tissue infections can, initially, mimicry superficial skin infections such as erysipelas. However, a rapidly deteriorating health status, the spreading of the lesions and the lack of clear visual limitation of the infection on the skin are hallmarks of a more severe underlying infection, which may endanger patients' life. An immediate adequate multidisciplinary approach to therapy within a few hours is mandatory. The first step is surgical exploration with debridement of all infected tissues, accompanied by antibiotic therapy and additional supportive measures. Despite progress in the understanding of the physiopathology, the delay between suspicion of diagnosis and surgical exploration remains critical. Because of the low incidence of such severe infections, only multicenter studies might reveal deeper insights of optimal therapeutic strategies in the future and for possible improved patients' survival.

[Measures against surgical site infections in orthopaedic surgery]. / Prévention des infections postopératoires en orthopédie.

Orthopaedic surgery has low healthcare-associated infection incidences compared to other surgical disciplines. However, whenever they occur, these infections are associated with substantial morbidity, prolonged hospital stay, high costs, and difficulties of eradication with life-long recurrence risks. Among the many measures to prevent orthopaedic surgical site infections, only few are based on strong evidence, and there is insufficient evidence to ascertain which element is superior to any other. This highlights the need for multimodal approaches involving active post-discharge surveillance, as well as measures at every step of the care process; from the individual patient to department-wide interventions targeting all infections, and including antibiotic stewardship.

Tolerability and acceptability of three alcohol-based hand-rub gel formulations: a randomized crossover study.

BACKGROUND: Healthcare workers often experience skin dryness and irritation from performing hand hygiene frequently. Tolerability and acceptability are barriers to hand hygiene compliance, but there is little in the literature about exactly which types of alcohol-based hand rubs (ABHRs) have a higher dermal tolerance. AIM: To compare the tolerability and acceptability of three different ABHR gel formulations in a population of adult volunteers. METHODS: Thirty-eight participants were randomized to three different sequences, testing three hand-rub gel formulations: isopropanol-based (Hopigel®); ethanol-based (World Health Organization (WHO) gel formulation); and ethanol-based containing superfatting agents (Saniswiss Sanitizer Hands H1). Participants tested each of the formulations over a series of three five-day interventions, followed by a nine-day washout period. At the end of each intervention, skin condition was assessed and feedback was collected. FINDINGS: Whereas no statistically significant difference was observed regarding tolerability between the three ABHR gel formulations tested, there were differences in acceptability. Participants preferred the smell of the H1 and WHO gel formulations (P = 0.003 and P = 0.040, respectively); H1 had a better texture than the WHO gel formulation (P < 0.001); and H1 was considered more pleasant overall than Hopigel (P = 0.037). Overall preference varied, but H1 was rated the favourite most often among participants, and the least favourite least often. CONCLUSION: A high variability was observed in the participants' reactions to the different formulations tested. These results highlight the importance of giving healthcare workers a choice between different high-quality hand rubs to ensure maximum acceptability.

"Seconds save lives - clean your hands": the 5 May 2021 World Health Organization SAVE LIVES: Clean Your Hands campaign.

To highlight the urgent need to save lives by implementing best practices in health care delivery, the slogan for 5 May 2021, world hand hygiene day, is "Seconds save lives - clean your hands". The WHO campaign calls to action key stakeholders: health care workers, IPC practitioners, patients and families, facility managers, policy-makers, vaccinators, and the general public who can play critical roles in achieving optimal hand hygiene at the point of care, helping to strengthen society involvement.

Implementation of the infection prevention and control core components at the national level: a global situational analysis.

BACKGROUND: Strengthening infection prevention and control (IPC) is essential to combat healthcare-associated infections, antimicrobial resistance, and to prevent and respond to outbreaks. AIM: To assess national IPC programmes worldwide according to the World Health Organization (WHO) IPC core components. METHODS: Between June 1st, 2017 and November 30th, 2018, a multi-country, cross-sectional study was conducted, based on semi-structured interviews with national IPC focal points of countries that pledged to the WHO 'Clean Care is Safer Care' challenge. Results and differences between regions and national income levels were summarized using descriptive statistics. FINDINGS: Eighty-eight of 103 (85.4%) eligible countries participated; 22.7% were low-income, 19.3% lower-middle-income, 23.9% upper-middle-income, and 34.1% high-income economies. A national IPC programme existed in 62.5%, but only 26.1% had a dedicated budget. National guidelines were available in 67.0%, but only 36.4% and 21.6% of countries had an implementation strategy and evaluated compliance with guidelines, respectively. Undergraduate IPC curriculum and in-service and postgraduate IPC training were reported by 35.2%, 54.5%, and 42% of countries, respectively. Healthcare-associated infection surveillance was reported by 46.6% of countries, with significant differences ranging from 83.3% (high-income) to zero (low-income) (P < 0.001); monitoring and feedback of IPC indicators was reported by 65.9%. Only 12.5% of countries had all core components in place. CONCLUSION: Most countries have IPC programme and guidelines, but many less have invested adequate resources and translated them in implementation and monitoring, particularly in low-income countries. Leadership support at the national and global level is needed to achieve implementation of the core components in all countries.

Explosive nosocomial outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 in a rehabilitation clinic: the limits of genomics for outbreak reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: Nosocomial outbreaks of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) are frequent despite implementation of conventional infection control measures. An outbreak investigation was undertaken using advanced genomic and statistical techniques to reconstruct likely transmission chains and assess the role of healthcare workers (HCWs) in SARS-CoV-2 transmission. METHODS: A nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 outbreak in a university-affiliated rehabilitation clinic was investigated, involving patients and HCWs, with high coverage of pathogen whole-genome sequences (WGS). The time-varying reproduction number from epidemiological data (Rt) was estimated, and maximum likelihood phylogeny was used to assess genetic diversity of the pathogen. Genomic and epidemiological data were combined into a Bayesian framework to model the directionality of transmission, and a case-control study was performed to investigate risk factors for nosocomial SARS-CoV-2 acquisition in patients. FINDINGS: The outbreak lasted from 14th March to 12th April 2020, and involved 37 patients (31 with WGS) and 39 employees (31 with WGS), 37 of whom were HCWs. Peak Rt was estimated to be between 2.2 and 3.6. The phylogenetic tree showed very limited genetic diversity, with 60 of 62 (96.7%) isolates forming one large cluster of identical genomes. Despite the resulting uncertainty in reconstructed transmission events, the analyses suggest that HCWs (one of whom was the index case) played an essential role in cross-transmission, with a significantly greater fraction of infections (P<2.2e-16) attributable to HCWs (70.7%) than expected given the number of HCW cases (46.7%). The excess of transmission from HCWs was higher when considering infection of patients [79.0%; 95% confidence interval (CI) 78.5-79.5%] and frail patients (Clinical Frailty Scale score >5; 82.3%; 95% CI 81.8-83.4%). Furthermore, frail patients were found to be at greater risk for nosocomial COVID-19 than other patients (adjusted odds ratio 6.94, 95% CI 2.13-22.57). INTERPRETATION: This outbreak report highlights the essential role of HCWs in SARS-CoV-2 transmission dynamics in healthcare settings. Limited genetic diversity in pathogen genomes hampered the reconstruction of individual transmission events, resulting in substantial uncertainty in who infected whom. However, this study shows that despite such uncertainty, significant transmission patterns can be observed.

Cluster-randomized, crossover trial of the efficacy of plain soap and water versus alcohol-based rub for surgical hand preparation in a rural hospital in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this cluster-randomized, crossover trial was to compare the efficacy of plain soap and water with an alcohol-based handrub for surgical hand preparation and prevention of surgical-site infection (SSI) in a Kenyan rural hospital. METHODS: A total of 3317 patients undergoing clean and clean-contaminated surgery were included. Follow-up data 30 days after discharge were available for 3133 patients (94.5 per cent). RESULTS: SSI occurred in 255 patients (8.1 per cent), with similar rates for both study arms: 8.3 per cent for alcohol-based handrub versus 8.0 per cent for plain soap and water (odds ratio 1.03, 95 per cent confidence interval 0.80 to 1.33). After adjustment for imbalances between study arms and clustering effects, the main outcome measure remained unchanged (adjusted odds ratio 1.06, 0.81 to 1.38). The duration of surgery and wound contamination class independently predicted SSI. The cost difference between the methods was small (€4.60 per week for alcohol-based handrub compared with €3.30 for soap and water). CONCLUSION: There was no statistically or clinically significant difference in SSI rates, probably because more important factors contribute to SSI development. However, this study demonstrated the feasibility and affordability of alcohol-based handrubs for hand preparation before surgery in settings without continuous, clean water. REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT00987402 (http://www.clinicaltrials.gov).

Educating healthcare workers to optimal hand hygiene practices: addressing the need.

The education of healthcare workers is essential to improve practices and is an integral part of hand hygiene promotional strategies. According to the evidence reviewed here, healthcare worker education has a positive impact on improving hand hygiene and reducing healthcare-associated infection. Detailed practical guidance on steps for the organization of education programmes in healthcare facilities and teaching-learning strategies are provided using the World Health Organization (WHO) Guidelines for Hand Hygiene in Health Care as the basis for recommendations. Several key elements for a successful educational programme are also identified. A particular emphasis is placed on concepts included in the tools developed by WHO for education, monitoring and performance feedback.

Handrubbing with sprayed alcohol-based hand rub: an alternative method for effective hand hygiene.

BACKGROUND: Hand hygiene is crucial in infection prevention and control. It is unclear whether sprayed alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) is non-inferior to the World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended method of handrubbing with poured ABHR. AIM: To test whether sprayed ABHR can be an alternative (non-inferior) method for effective hand hygiene with/without handrubbing. METHODS: A laboratory experiment was conducted with ABHR (isopropanol 60% v/v) according to European Norm 1500. Hand hygiene was performed by: (1) handrubbing with ABHR poured on to the palm of the hand; (2) handrubbing with sprayed ABHR; and (3) applying sprayed ABHR to hands without handrubbing. Hands were contaminated with Escherichia coli ATCC 10536, followed by hand hygiene and microbiological sampling. A generalized linear mixed model with a random intercept per subject was used to analyse the reduction in bacterial count following hand hygiene. FINDINGS: In total, 19 healthcare workers participated in the study. Handrubbing with sprayed ABHR was non-inferior [margin log10 0.6 colony-forming units (cfu)/mL] to the WHO-recommended method of handrubbing with poured ABHR; bacterial count reductions were log10 3.66 cfu/mL [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.68-5.64] and log10 3.46 cfu/mL (95% CI 1.27-5.65), respectively. Conversely, non-inferiority was not found for sprayed ABHR without handrubbing [bacterial count reduction log10 2.76 cfu/mL (95% CI 1.65-3.87)]. CONCLUSION: Handrubbing with sprayed ABHR was non-inferior to handrubbing with ABHR poured on to the palm of the hand to reduce bacterial counts on hands under experimental conditions. Handrubbing with sprayed ABHR may be an acceptable alternative hand hygiene method pending assessment in other settings and for other pathogens.

Antimicrobial resistance in southern China: results of prospective surveillance in Dongguan city, 2017.

BACKGROUND: Few studies have estimated the burden of infections due to antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) pathogens in China. AIM: To summarize antimicrobial resistance and assess the frequency of community-associated infections (CAIs) and healthcare-associated infections (HCAIs) due to AMR pathogens in Dongguan city, China. METHODS: Seven acute care hospitals provided antimicrobial susceptibility data for 2017, from which 'bug-drug' combinations were analysed. To calculate incidence proportions of CAI and incidence densities of HCAI, data from three tertiary care hospitals were merged with patient data, obtained from the Dongguan Nosocomial Infection Surveillance System. FINDINGS: A total of 16,548 pathogens were analysed. Non-susceptibility to third-generation cephalosporins (3GCs) in Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae was 43.9% and 30.2%, respectively. Non-susceptibility to carbapenems in Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii was 29.5% and 50.9%, respectively. A quarter of Staphylococcus aureus (26.3%) were non-susceptible to oxacillin. The incidence density of HCAI due to E. coli non-susceptible to 3GCs and fluoroquinolones combined was 0.09 (95% confidence interval: 0.07-0.11) per 1000 patient-days. Both E. coli and K. pneumoniae were the predominant pathogens isolated from blood. Compared with the 2017 European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network report, the incidence proportion of bloodstream infections due to multidrug-resistant E. coli was significantly higher (14.9% and 4.6%, respectively). CONCLUSION: The incidence of non-susceptible bug-drug combinations in Dongguan city was lower compared with China as a whole. Non-susceptible bug-drug combinations were significantly more frequent in HCAI compared with CAI. The incidence proportion of bloodstream infections due to multidrug-resistant pathogens in Dongguan City was higher compared with Europe.

Hand antisepsis without decreasing efficacy by shortening the rub-in time of alcohol-based handrubs to 15 seconds.

BACKGROUND: A previous study among neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) nurses showed that the antibacterial efficacy of alcohol-based handrubs (ABHR) can be achieved in 15 s instead of 30 s with a significant increase in the frequency of hand antisepsis. This study aimed to examine 15-s vs 30-s antisepsis performance by measuring microbial load on fingertips and compliance among nurses in a low-risk gynaecological ward. METHODS: An independent trained observer monitored the frequency and compliance with hand antisepsis during shifts in a crossover design. Fingertips including thumbs were rinsed in soy broth before hand rubbing at the beginning of a shift and then hourly to determine the bacterial load. Performance activity was assigned to the contamination class of the Fulkerson scale. Immediately before the lunch break, volunteers cleaned their hands for a randomly determined application time of 15 or 30 s. RESULTS: Examination of bacterial load on fingertips revealed no difference between 15 vs 30 s application time. Controlled hand antisepsis before the lunch break also showed no difference in efficacy for either test series. Participants rubbing for 15 s were more likely to perform hand antisepsis compared with those rubbing for 30 s (P=0.2). The compliance increased from 54.7% to 69.5% in the 15-s trial. DISCUSSION: Shortening the duration for hand antisepsis did not decrease efficacy. Shortening the application time to 15 s should be considered within the critical components of a successful multimodal intervention strategy to improve hand-hygiene compliance in clinical practice.

Nurses and physicians' perceptions of the importance and impact of healthcare-associated infections and hand hygiene: a multi-center exploratory study in Hong Kong.

BACKGROUND: Hand hygiene promotion for patient safety is a challenge worldwide, and local data are critical to tailor strategies to the setting. METHODS: This is a cross-sectional study of nurses and physicians providing direct patient care in four hospitals in Hong Kong using an anonymous questionnaire survey. Cognitive factors related to hand hygiene and the perception of effective interventions promoting hand hygiene were assessed. RESULTS: The overall response rate was 59.3%. Among respondents, 70% of the nurses and 49% of the physicians perceived that over 15% of patients would suffer from healthcare-associated infections. A total of 79% of the nurses and 68% of the physicians believed that more than 5% of patients would die as a result of healthcare-associated infection. A total of 60% of the nurses and 46% of the physicians acknowledged that over 75% of healthcare-associated infections could be prevented by optimal hand hygiene practices, although 36% of the nurses and 23% of the physicians claimed that six to ten hand cleansing times per hour would be necessary. Bivariate analysis showed significant differences between professionals in self-reported performance. A multivariate regression model revealed that perceived behavioral control and subjective norms were the most important factors associated with the nurses and physicians' self-reported hand hygiene performance. However when gender was taken into account among professionals, subjective norms was the only consistent one. CONCLUSION: These results could be used as a tool to create goal-specific strategies for motivating hand hygiene amongst nurses and physicians in Hong Kong, with appropriate promotional interventions delivered to the different professional groups and specialties.

African partnerships for patient safety: a vehicle for enhancing patient safety across two continents. [corrected].

African Partnerships for Patient Safety (APPS) aims to develop sustainable partnerships between hospitals in Africa and Europe to create a network of beacon hospitals for patient safety. The three core APPS objectives are focused on building strong patient safety partnerships between hospitals in Africa and Europe, implementing patient safety improvements in each partnership hospital on 12 patient safety action areas, and facilitating spread of patient safety improvements. APPS is working with six first wave hospital partnerships and will capture and report learning from implementation. A range of APPS resources will shortly be available to hospitals working on patient safety systems.

Hand hygiene in hospitals: anatomy of a revolution.

Healthcare-associated infections (HAIs) affect hundreds of millions of individuals worldwide. Performing hand hygiene is widely accepted as a key strategy of infection prevention and control (IPC) to prevent HAIs, as healthcare workers' contaminated hands are the vehicle most often implicated in the cross-transmission of pathogens in health care. Over the last 20 years, a paradigm shift has occurred in hand hygiene: the change from handwashing with soap and water to using alcohol-based hand rubs. In order to put this revolution into context and understand how such a change was able to be implemented across so many different cultures and geographic regions, it is useful to understand how the idea of hygiene in general, and hand hygiene specifically, developed. This paper aims to examine how ideas about hygiene and hand hygiene evolved from ancient to modern times, from a ubiquitous but local set of ideas to a global phenomenon. It reviews historical landmarks from the first known documented recipe for soap by the Babylon civilization to the discovery of chlorine, and significant contributions by pioneers such as Antoine Germain Labarraque, Alexander Gordon, Oliver Wendell Holmes, Ignaz Philip Semmelweis, Louis Pasteur and Joseph Lister. It recalls that handwashing with soap and water appeared in guidelines to prevent HAIs in the 1980s; describes why alcohol-based hand rub replaced this as the central tool for action within a multi-modal improvement strategy; and looks at how the World Health Organization and other committed stakeholders, governments and dedicated IPC staff are championing hand hygiene globally.

Antibacterial efficacy of handrubbing for 15 versus 30 seconds: EN 1500-based randomized experimental study with different loads of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli.

OBJECTIVES: Compliance with the World Health Organization 'how to handrub' action is suboptimal. Simplifying the hand-hygiene action may improve practice. However, it is crucial to preserve antibacterial efficacy. We tested the non-inferiority of 15 versus 30 seconds handrubbing for Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli contamination at different loads, using hand-size customized alcohol-based handrub (ABHR) volumes. METHODS: In an EN1500-based study, 18 health-care workers (HCWs) with extensive experience in hand hygiene rubbed hands with a hand-size customized volume of isopropanol 60% v/v. They repeated the following sequence: hand contamination (E. coli or S. aureus; broth containing 108 or 106 CFU/mL); baseline fingertips sampling; handrubbing (15 or 30 seconds); re-sampling. The main outcome was log10 CFU corrected reduction factor (cRF) on HCWs' hands, applying a generalized linear mixed model with a random intercept for subject. RESULTS: The median cRF was 2.1 log10 (interquartile range 1.50-3.10). After fitting the model, cRF was significantly higher for S. aureus compared with E. coli but there was no significant effect for duration of handrubbing or contamination fluid concentration. Fifteen seconds of handrubbing was non-inferior to 30 (-0.06 log10, 95% CI -0.34 to 0.22; EN1500 0.60 log10 non-inferiority margin). This was confirmed in all pre-specified subgroups. CONCLUSION: Among experienced HCWs using a hand-size customized volume of ABHR, handrubbing for 15 seconds was non-inferior to 30 seconds in reducing bacterial load, irrespective of type of bacteria or contamination fluid concentration. This provides further support for a shorter, 15-seconds, hand-hygiene action.

Impact of participation in a surgical site infection surveillance network: results from a large international cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Surveillance of surgical site infections (SSIs) is a core component of effective infection control practices, though its impact has not been quantified on a large scale. AIM: To determine the time-trend of SSI rates in surveillance networks. METHODS: SSI surveillance networks provided procedure-specific data on numbers of SSIs and operations, stratified by hospitals' year of participation in the surveillance, to capture length of participation as an exposure. Pooled and procedure-specific random-effects Poisson regression was performed to obtain yearly rate ratios (RRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs), and including surveillance network as random intercept. FINDINGS: Of 36 invited networks, 17 networks from 15 high-income countries across Asia, Australia and Europe participated in the study. Aggregated data on 17 surgical procedures (cardiovascular, digestive, gynaecological-obstetrical, neurosurgical, and orthopaedic) were collected, resulting in data concerning 5,831,737 operations and 113,166 SSIs. There was a significant decrease in overall SSI rates over surveillance time, resulting in a 35% reduction at the ninth (final) included year of surveillance (RR: 0.65; 95% CI: 0.63-0.67). There were large variations across procedure-specific trends, but strong consistent decreases were observed for colorectal surgery, herniorrhaphy, caesarean section, hip prosthesis, and knee prosthesis. CONCLUSION: In this large, international cohort study, pooled SSI rates were associated with a stable and sustainable decrease after joining an SSI surveillance network; a causal relationship is possible, although unproven. There was heterogeneity in procedure-specific trends. These findings support the pivotal role of surveillance in reducing infection rates and call for widespread implementation of hospital-based SSI surveillance in high-income countries.

Multi-resistant infections in repatriated patients after natural disasters: lessons learned from the 2004 tsunami for hospital infection control.

Infections are a frequent consequence of natural disasters. Repatriated victims may require hospital care due to multiple fractures, pneumonia or wound infections caused by multi-resistant pathogens that require specific infection control measures. To address potential pitfalls of infection control and clinical care in repatriated patients, we sought to provide microbiological insight into the possible origins of multi-drug antibiotic resistance in survivors of natural disasters. A review of the medical literature was performed from 1986 to 2006 with an emphasis on the 2004 tsunami disaster in the Indian Ocean. After natural disasters, polymicrobial infections may occur following heavy inoculation during trauma. Multi-resistant Gram-negative pathogens are more prevalent than Gram-positive bacteria. A high incidence of extended spectrum beta-lactamase-producing bacteria and difficult-to-treat fungal infections in otherwise immunocompetent hosts may challenge routine hospital care. We recommend that survivors of natural disasters should be kept in pre-emptive contact isolation during air transport and hospitalisation until the results of all microbiological cultures become available. A meticulous diagnostic work-up is necessary upon admission and empiric antibiotic treatment should be avoided. Infections may also become manifest after several weeks of hospitalisation. In case of life-threatening infection, antibiotic therapy should cover non-fermenting pathogens.