Supplementation of by-products from grape, tomato and myrtle affects antioxidant status of dairy ewes and milk fatty acid profile.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of diets containing different dried by-products on milk and blood plasma antioxidant capacity of dairy ewes. Thirty-six Sarda ewes were assigned to four treatments: control (CON; no by-product), 100 g/day of grape marc (GM), 100 g/day tomato pomace (TP) and 75 g/day of exhausted myrtle berries (EMBs). The superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione transferase (GST) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) in blood, and SOD, GR and lactoperoxidase (LPO) in milk were determined. Total antioxidant capacity (FRAP and ABTS assays), malondialdehyde (MDA) and protein carbonyls (PCs) were also measured. Milk fatty acid profile was investigated by gas chromatography. The results showed higher antioxidant capacity measured by FRAP or ABTS assays and a reduction in MDA in GM plasma than CON. All by-products enhanced the protection of milk proteins by oxidation, as evidenced by lower values of PCs compared with CON. GM supplementation increased PUFAn-6, due to increase in C18:2n-6, the main component of GM compared with CON. All by-products did not modify the nutritional indexes of milk fat. In conclusion, dietary GM may enhance protection against oxidative condition of dairy ewes, whereas TP and EMB need further research to define the optimum inclusion level in sheep diet.

Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry metabolomics of goat milk with different polymorphism at the αS1-casein genotype locus.

Hyphenated gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and multivariate data analysis techniques were used to uncover milk metabolite differences in different αS1-casein genotypes of goats. By a discriminant GC-MS metabolomics approach, we characterized milk polar metabolites of 28 goats. Animals were selected on the basis of their genotypes as 7 goats classified heterozygous for weak or null alleles, 5 for the genotype EE, 9 for the genotypes AE and BE, and finally 7 for the strong genotype AA. Low molecular weight polar metabolite profile was tightly related to the different goat genotypes, milk production, and protein levels. Results of multivariate statistical analysis of GC-MS data demonstrate that different heterozygous and homozygous genotypes expressed different metabolites such as citric and aconitic acid for the strong allele class with different sugars and polyols for the weak class.

Behaviour Indicators of Animal Welfare in Purebred and Crossbred Yearling Beef Reared in Optimal Environmental Conditions.

The aim of this study was to monitor the behaviour of purebred and crossbred beef cattle reared in the same optimal environmental conditions according to Classyfarm®. Thirty-yearling beef 11.5 months old, including 10 Limousines (LMS), 10 Sardo-Bruna (SRB), and 10 crossbred Limousine × Sardo-Bruna (LMS × SRB), balanced for sex and body weight, were used. Animals were evaluated for five months by two trained operators by SCAN ("sternal resting", "lateral resting", " central or peripheral position in the pen", standing", "walking", "feeding", "drinking", and "ruminating) and FOCUS ("displacement for space", "displacement for feed or water", "play-fighting", "self-grooming", "allo-grooming", "stereotyping", and "mounting") protocols. Feeding behaviour was monitored by a CCTV system. The application of the SCAN sampling evidenced that SRB animals preferred the "standing" activity over the LMS animals, while the LMS × SRB did not differ from them. The "standing" and " ruminating "activities were observed mostly in females than males (p < 0.05). For behaviour parameters assessed by the FOCUS methodology, the n-events of "allo-grooming" were higher (p < 0.05) in SRB than in LMS and LMS × SRB genetic types. Males showed higher (p < 0.05) n-events than females for "play-fighting". For feeding behaviour, the "eating concentrate" activity (expressed as n-events) was higher (p < 0.05) in SRB than LMS × SRB and LMS being intermediate (p < 0.05). The duration of "eating concentrate" (expressed in minutes) was higher (p < 0.05) in females than males. In conclusion, behaviour indicators of animal welfare did not evidence substantial differences among genetic types and between sexes reared in the same "optimal" environmental conditions. Female beef and the autochthon's cattle breed of Sardinia, although typically hardy, showed a wide behavioural repertoire.

Anthropocentrism, Natural Harmony, Sentience and Animal Rights: Are We Allowed to Use Animals for Our Own Purposes?

Taking a cue from J.W. Yates' recent work on animal sentience published in this journal, which explores the field and categorizes it as a harmony with nature and a recognition of its values, inferring that the inclusion of animals in the sphere of objective rights is the obligatory step for a real sustainability in all human activities, this opinion paper seeks to challenge some of the claims made in the article and present an alternative perspective on sentience and animal rights. Preliminarily, I propose a semantic word-washing and the use of more precise terms instead of not well-defined ones such as "harmony" in relation to nature and "sentience" in relation to animals, and I affirm that there can be only one point of view, however rich in dialectics, which is the human one for looking at the problems of animal ethics. Below, I present the thesis that concludes that it is not possible to attribute rights to animals, but it is our right and duty to protect their well-being, which requires states to pass laws for their defence. I conclude that while it is acceptable to raise animals for priority human rights (such as food and health), it is also an obligation to properly care for and protect them.

Feeding and Nutritional Factors That Affect Somatic Cell Counts in Milk of Sheep and Goats.

The purpose of this quantitative review is to highlight the effects of feeding strategies using some mineral, vitamin, marine oil, and vegetable essential oil supplements and some agri-food by-products to reduce SCCs in the milk of sheep and goats. According to the results, only specific dietary factors at specific doses could reduce SCCs in the milk of dairy sheep and goats. The combination of Se and vitamin E in the diet was more effective in sheep than in goats, while the inclusion of polyphenols, which are also present in food matrices such as agro-industrial by-products, led to better results. Some essential oils can be conveniently used to modulate SCCs, although they can precipitate an off-flavoring problem. This work shows that SCCs are complex and cannot be determined using a single experimental factor, as intramammary inflammation, which is the main source of SC in milk, can manifest in a subclinical form without clinical signs. However, attention to mineral and vitamin supplementation, even in the most difficult cases, such as those of grazing animals, and the use of anti-inflammatory substances directly or through by-products, can improve the nutritional condition of animals and reduce their SCCs, offering undeniable benefits for the milk-processing sector as well.

Grape, Pomegranate, Olive, and Tomato By-Products Fed to Dairy Ruminants Improve Milk Fatty Acid Profile without Depressing Milk Production.

The continuous increase in the cost of feeds and the need to improve the sustainability of animal production require the identification of alternative feeds, such as those derived from the agro-industrial sector, that can be effectively used for animal nutrition. Since these by-products (BP) are sources of bioactive substances, especially polyphenols, they may play an important role as a new resource for improving the nutritional value of animal-derived products, being effective in the modulation of the biohydrogenation process in the rumen, and, hence, in the composition of milk fatty acids (FA). The main objective of this work was to evaluate if the inclusion of BP in the diets of dairy ruminants, as a partial replacement of concentrates, could improve the nutritional quality of dairy products without having negative effects on animal production traits. To meet this goal, we summarized the effects of widespread agro-industrial by-products such as grape pomace or grape marc, pomegranate, olive cake, and tomato pomace on milk production, milk composition, and FA profile in dairy cows, sheep, and goats. The results evidenced that substitution of part of the ratio ingredients, mainly concentrates, in general, does not affect milk production and its main components, but at the highest tested doses, it can depress the yield within the range of 10-12%. However, the general positive effect on milk FA profile was evident by using almost all BP at different tested doses. The inclusion of these BP in the ration, from 5% up to 40% of dry matter (DM), did not depress milk yield, fat, or protein production, demonstrating positive features in terms of both economic and environmental sustainability and the reduction of human-animal competition for food. The general improvement of the nutritional quality of milk fat related to the inclusion of these BP in dairy ruminant diets is an important advantage for the commercial promotion of dairy products resulting from the recycling of agro-industrial by-products.

A Preliminary Study on the Interplay between the Serum Levels of Neurotransmitters and Thyroid Hormones for the Evaluation of the Behavioral Phenotype of Dogs.

A total of 112 dogs (49 males and 63 females) belonging to different breeds (i.e., Boxer, Cirneco dell'Etna, Fonni's Dog, Labrador, Crossbreed, German Shepherd, Pit Bull, Shar-Pei, Yorkshire) were analyzed to compare the serum concentration of serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, prolactin, beta-endorphins, thyroxine (T4), triiodothyronine (T3), thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and assess whether these parameters can be correlated with the behavioral phenotype of the investigated breeds. T4 was above or below the threshold in 61% and 14% of dogs, respectively; T3, in contrast, 41% of dogs showed values below the limit, while 26% above it. TSH was within the reference range in 58% of dogs; 94% of the dogs had prolactin in the reference range and only five animals showed values above the limit. For beta-endorphins, 49% of dogs had values above the limit, while 46% had values within the reference range. Serotonin and dopamine values below physiological limits were found in 62% and 70% of dogs, respectively. Finally, 61% of the dogs showed norepinephrine values within the reference range. The study confirmed that the assessment of the serum values of hormones and neurotransmitters in dogs could be useful to better understand the behavioral phenotype of the animal and could be useful for breeders and trainers for the selection of the most suitable subjects for specific tasks.

The heavy suckling lamb of Sarda dairy sheep and its crossbreed with Dorper rams: Performance, meat quality and consumer perceptions.

The increase of meat production in dairy sheep farms, has been evaluated by the extension of the suckling period from the traditional 28 days to 75 days to obtain a new product, the heavy suckling lamb. Nineteen single-born Sarda (S) lambs (10 male, 9 female) and 20 single-born Dorper x Sarda (DS) lambs (9 male, 11 female), randomly selected from autumn lambing season, were fed exclusively with maternal milk until slaughtering at 20 ± 0.28 kg of body weight (BW, mean ± standard deviation, SD) and approximately 11 weeks of age. Body weight were recorded at birth and every 15 days until slaughter to estimate average daily gain (ADG). At slaughter, carcass measurements, pH and colour traits were recorded from the left side of the carcass. Proximate composition, fatty acid (FA) profile, cooking and drip losses were evaluated using the Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscle. In addition, Visual Panel Test (VPT) and Taste Panel Test (TPT) were performed. Experimental results evidenced that ADG did not differ between pure and crossbreed lambs and between sexes. The S lamb carcasses showed a higher fat content and rib fat thickness compared to that of crossbreed. No significant differences were found between genetic types and sex for colour and pH determinations, cooking and drip losses, whereas LTL fat of DS displayed a higher nutritional FA profile with higher content of 22:5n-3, 22:6n-3, branched-chain FA, and odd- and branched chain FA. No differences emerged during VPT and TPT, demonstrating that both DS and S lamb meats present no distinguishable visual and eating quality characteristics. The production of heavy suckling lambs from Sarda and Dorper crossbreed by the extension of suckling period appeared a promising strategy for producing meat of high quality, well appreciated by the consumers.

Comparison of Milk Odd- and Branched-Chain Fatty Acids among Human, Dairy Species and Artificial Substitutes.

The aim of the study was to compare odd and branched-chain fatty acids (OBCFA) of milk from sheep, goat, cow, buffalo, donkey, human, and formula milk. Ruminant, monogastric, and human milks have different concentrations of these fatty acids (FA). To highlight the differences on OBCFA, a total of 282 individual milk samples were analyzed by gas chromatography. The OBCFA were found higher in ruminant than non-ruminant milks (p < 0.05). Among ruminants, sheep milk had the highest OBCFA (4.5 g/100 g of total FAME), whereases the lowest values were found in formula milk (0.18 g/100 g of total FAME). Regarding individual linear odd-chain FA (linear-OCFA), C11:0 was found higher in donkey milk than others, while sheep and buffalo milks had the greatest concentration of C15:0. Among BCFA, the iso-BCFA were higher than anteiso-BCFA in all considered milks. The isoC17:0 showed the highest concentration in all milks except for donkey and buffalo, which showed higher concentration of isoC16:0 than others. In conclusion, ruminant milks are different in terms of these FA compared to human milk and its substitutes. However, the greatest differences were found with formula milk, suggesting that this product needs the implementation of these FA to be more similar to human milk composition.

Essential and Toxic Mineral Content and Fatty Acid Profile of Colostrum in Dairy Sheep.

Colostrum is a major source of immunity in ruminants. It allows the transfer of antibodies from the mother to the fetus, and it is the exclusive source of nutrients for the newborn. The objectives of this study were (i) to characterize the macro and the micro composition of colostrum; (ii) to analyze the antioxidant capacity, fatty acid profile, and essential and toxic mineral content of colostrum; and (iii) to compare FA profiles and the amount of trace elements between colostrum and mature milk. For these purposes, samples of colostrum and milk were collected from a representative sample of animals from eight sheep dairy farms in the north of Sardinia (Italy). Fat, proteins, and seven essential and toxic minerals were measured in all samples of colostrum and milk. Furthermore, the FA profile was also measured in both matrices, while total antioxidant capacity was measured only in colostrum samples. The average amounts of fat and protein (TP) concentration in colostrum were 7.8% and 16%, respectively. Additionally, an average amount of 40 ± 20 g dm-3 was found for immunoglobulin G (IgG). As regards the antioxidant capacity of colostrum, a large variation was observed between samples from different farms for test 2, 2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), which was 30 ± 10% (mean ± standard deviation). High levels of selenium (Se), zinc (Zn), and copper (Cu) were found in colostrum (200 µg kg-1, 25,000 µg kg-1, and 1200 µg kg-1, respectively). A strong positive correlation between TP and IgG was observed (r = 91%). In colostrum, the amount of IgG is positively correlated with Se and Zn, as they are essential minerals to the immune system. The FA profile demonstrated higher levels of medium and long chain fatty acids in colostrum than in mature milk, and this is mainly true for arachidonic acid (ARA), ecosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). This study provided new information on the quality of colostrum in Sarda dairy sheep and showed the different composition of fatty acids between colostrum and mature milk.

Farm Animals Are Long Away from Natural Behavior: Open Questions and Operative Consequences on Animal Welfare.

The concept of welfare applied to farm animals has undergone a remarkable evolution. The growing awareness of citizens pushes farmers to guarantee the highest possible level of welfare to their animals. New perspectives could be opened for animal welfare reasoning around the concept of domestic, especially farm, animals as partial human artifacts. Therefore, it is important to understand how much a particular behavior of a farm animal is far from the natural one of its ancestors. This paper is a contribution to better understand the role of genetics of the farm animals on their behavior. This means that the naïve approach to animal welfare regarding returning animals to their natural state should be challenged and that welfare assessment should be considered.

Effect of Suckling Management and Ewe Concentrate Level on Methane-Related Carbon Footprint of Lamb Meat in Sardinian Dairy Sheep Farming.

The aim of this study was to estimate the methane-linked carbon footprint (CF) of the suckling lamb meat of Mediterranean dairy sheep. Ninety-six Sarda dairy ewes, divided into four groups of 24 animals each, were assigned to 2 × 2 factorial design. The experiment included the suckling lamb feeding system: traditional (TS), in which lambs followed their mothers on pasture during grazing time, vs. separated (SS), in which lambs remained indoors, separated from their mothers during the grazing time. Each group was divided into high (HS) and low (LS) supplemented ewes (600 g/d vs. 200 g/d of concentrate). The estimated CH4 emission of the ewes, calculated per kg of body weight (BW) gain of the lamb during the suckling period, was then converted to CO2eq with multiplying factor of 25. The TS lambs showed lower methane-linked emissions than SS ones (p < 0.05). The sex of lambs affected their methane-linked CF, with males having lower (p < 0.05) values than females. Twins displayed much lower methane-linked CF than singles (4.56 vs. 7.30 kg of CO2eq per kg of BW gained), whereas the level of supplementation did not affect greenhouse gases (GHG) emission. Interaction displayed lower and not-different GHG emissions for both indoor- and outdoor-reared twins. In conclusion, the methane-linked CF of the suckling lamb meat can be reduced by maintaining the traditional lamb rearing system and by improving flock prolificacy.

Effect of Dams and Suckling Lamb Feeding Systems on the Fatty Acid Composition of Suckling Lamb Meat.

The effects of the dams and suckling lamb feeding systems on the fatty acid (FA) profile of lamb meat are reviewed in this article. The suckling lamb can be considered a functional monogastric, and therefore, its meat FA composition is strongly influenced by the FA composition of maternal milk. The major source of variation for ewe milk FA composition is represented by pasture amount and type. In the traditional sheep breeding system of the Mediterranean area, the main lambing period occurs in late autumn-early winter, and ewes are able to exploit the seasonal availability of the natural pastures at their best. Therefore, lambs start suckling when maternal milk concentrations of vaccenic, rumenic, and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated FA in maternal milk are the highest. When maternal diet is mainly based on hay and concentrates, the use of vegetable oils can be considered a good strategy to improve the meat FA profile of suckling lambs.

Sheep and Goats Respond Differently to Feeding Strategies Directed to Improve the Fatty Acid Profile of Milk Fat.

This bibliographic review presents and discusses the nutritional strategies able to increase the concentration of beneficial fatty acids (FA) in sheep and goat milk, and dairy products, with a particular focus on the polyunsaturated FA (PUFA), and highlights differences between the two species. In fact, by adopting appropriate feeding strategies, it is possible to markedly vary the concentration of fat in milk and improve its FA composition. These strategies are based mostly on the utilization of herbage rich in PUFA, or on the inclusion of vegetable, marine, or essential oils in the diet of lactating animals. Sheep respond more effectively than goats to the utilization of fresh herbage and to nutritional approaches that improve the milk concentration of c9,t11-conjugated linoleic acid (c9,t11-CLA) and α-linolenic acid. Dietary polyphenols can influence milk FA profile, reducing or inhibiting the activity and growth of some strains of rumen microbes involved in the biohydrogenation of PUFA. Although the effectiveness of plant secondary compounds in improving milk FA composition is still controversial, an overall positive effect has been observed on the concentration of PUFA and RA, without marked differences between sheep and goats. On the other hand, the positive effect of dietary polyphenols on the oxidative stability of milk fat appears to be more consistent.

Can Agro-Industrial By-Products Rich in Polyphenols be Advantageously Used in the Feeding and Nutrition of Dairy Small Ruminants?

Recently, the interest in industrial by-products produced at the local level in Mediterranean areas, resulting from fruit and vegetable processes, has increased because of their considerable amounts of bioactive compounds, including polyphenols. In this review, we analyze the most recent scientific results concerning the use of agro-industrial by-products, naturally rich in polyphenols (BPRP), in the diets of small dairy ruminants. Effects on milk production, milk and rumen liquor fatty acid profile, metabolic parameters, and methane production are reviewed. The feed intake and digestibility coefficients were generally depressed by BPRP, even though they were not always reflected in the milk yield. The main observed positive effects of BPRP were on quality of the milk's FA profile, antioxidant activity in milk and blood, a reduction of rumen ammonia, and, consequently, a reduction of milk and blood urea. The expected beneficial effects of dietary polyphenols in small ruminants were not always observed because of their complex and variable matrices. However, owing to the large quantities of these products available at low prices, the use of BPRB in small ruminant nutrition offers a convenient solution to the valorization of residues arising from agricultural activities, reducing feed costs for farmers and conferring added value to dairy products at the local level, in a sustainable way.

Myrtus communis Liquor Byproduct as a Source of Bioactive Compounds.

The fatty acid (FA), polyphenol content and evaluation of the antioxidant capacity of exhausted Myrtus communis berries (EMB) resulting from the production of myrtle liqueur were assessed. All parts of the exhausted berries exhibited high concentrations of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and phenolic compounds. The lipid fraction contained a high amount of poly unsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), mainly represented by linoleic acid (>70%). Of the phenolic acids evaluated by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry, ellagic acid was the most predominant (>50%), followed by gallic and quinic acids. Quercetin and quercetin3-O-rhamnoside were the most abundant flavonoids. The seed extracts showed a higher antioxidant potential than the pericarp extracts; the same trend was observed for total phenolic compounds evaluated by spectrophotometric assay. The overall high content of bioactive compounds and the high antioxidant potential of this byproduct sustain its suitability for a number of industrial applications, such as a food ingredient in novel foods, an additive in cosmetic formulations or a component of animal feed formulations.

Estimating clinical chemistry reference values based on an existing data set of unselected animals.

In an attempt to standardise the determination of biological reference values, the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (IFCC) has published a series of recommendations on developing reference intervals. The IFCC recommends the use of an a priori sampling of at least 120 healthy individuals. However, such a high number of samples and laboratory analysis is expensive, time-consuming and not always feasible, especially in veterinary medicine. In this paper, an alternative (a posteriori) method is described and is used to determine reference intervals for biochemical parameters of farm animals using an existing laboratory data set. The method used was based on the detection and removal of outliers to obtain a large sample of animals likely to be healthy from the existing data set. This allowed the estimation of reliable reference intervals for biochemical parameters in Sarda dairy sheep. This method may also be useful for the determination of reference intervals for different species, ages and gender.

Behavioural lateralization in sheep (Ovis aries).

This study investigates behavioural lateralization in sheep and lambs of different ages. A flock was tested in a task in which the animals were facing an obstacle and should avoid it on either the right or left side to rejoin flock-mates (adult sheep) or their mothers (lambs). A bias for avoiding the obstacle on the right side was observed, with lambs apparently being more lateralized than sheep. This right bias was tentatively associated with the left-hemifield laterality in familiar faces recognition which has been documented in this species. Differences between adult sheep and lambs were likely to be due to differences in social reinstatement motivation elicited by different stimuli (flock-mates or mothers) at different ages. Preferential use of the forelegs to step on a wood-board and direction of jaw movement during rumination was also tested in adult animals. No population bias nor individual-level lateralization was observed for use of the forelegs. At the same time, however, there was a large number of animals showing individual-level lateralization for the direction of jaw movement during rumination even though there was no population bias. These findings highlight that within the same species individual- and population-level lateralization can be observed in different tasks. Moreover, the results fit the general hypothesis that population-level asymmetries are more likely to occur in tasks that require social coordination among behaviourally asymmetric individuals.