Understanding Glucagon Aggregation: In Silico Insights and Experimental Validation.

Peptide aggregation poses a significant challenge in biopharmaceutical development and neurodegenerative diseases. This study combines computational simulations and experimental validation to uncover the underlying mechanisms and countermeasures for the aggregation of glucagon, a peptide with a high tendency to aggregate. In silico simulations demonstrate that lactose and 2-hydroxypropyl-ß-cyclodextrin (2-HPßCD) influence glucagon aggregation differently: lactose stabilizes glucagon by increasing the α-helical content, while 2-HPßCD disrupts protein-protein interactions. According to the simulations, 2-HPßCD is particularly effective at preserving the monomeric form of glucagon. Experimental validation with microfluidic modulation spectroscopy (MMS) confirms these findings, showing that glucagon in the presence of 2-HPßCD remains structurally stable, supporting the antiaggregation effect of this excipient. This research provides essential insights into glucagon aggregation obtained through a new powerful tool for monitoring the critical properties of peptide aggregation, suggesting new strategies for addressing this challenge in therapeutic peptide development.

Relevance of amphiphilicity and helicity on the antibacterial action of a histatin 5-derived peptide.

Peptide dhvar4, derived from the active domain of our salivary peptide histatin 5, bears a Phe residue in the middle of its hydrophilic face when folded into an α-helix. We then synthesized an analog with this Phe replaced by Lys and two analogs preserving Phe but bearing two and three α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib) residues to stabilize the helical structure. The aim of this design was to verify which of the two features is more favorable to the biological activity. We performed a conformational study by means of circular dichroism and nuclear magnetic resonance, made antibacterial tests, and assessed the stability of the peptides in human serum. We observed that amphiphilicity is more important than helix stability, provided a peptide can adopt a helical conformation in a membrane-mimetic environment.

Carbodiimide-Mediated Beckmann Rearrangement of Oxyma-B as a Side Reaction in Peptide Synthesis.

The suppression of side reactions is one of the most important objectives in peptide synthesis, where highly reactive compounds are involved. Recently, the violuric acid derivative Oxyma-B was introduced into peptide synthesis protocols as a promising additive to efficiently control the optical purity of the amino acids prone to racemization. However, we discovered a side reaction involving the Beckmann rearrangement of Oxyma-B during the coupling reaction, which compromises the yield and purity of the target peptides. Here, we present the investigation of the mechanism of this rearrangement and the optimization of the coupling reaction conditions to control it. These results can be taken into account for the design of novel efficient oxime-based coupling reagents.

Application of Af4-Multidetection to Liraglutide in Its Formulation: Preserving and Representing Native Aggregation.

Aggregation is among the most critical parameters affecting the pharmacological and safety profile of peptide Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs). For this reason, it is of utmost importance to define the exact aggregation state of peptide drugs, particularly when the API is marketed as a ready-to-use solution. Consequently, appropriate non-destructive techniques able to replicate the peptide environment must be employed. In our work, we exploited Asymmetrical Flow Field-Flow Fractionation (AF4), connected to UV, dRI, fluorescence, and MALS detectors, to fully characterize the aggregation state of Liraglutide, a peptide API used for the treatment of diabetes type 2 and chronic obesity. In previous studies, Liraglutide was hypothesized to assemble into hexa-octamers in phosphate buffer, but no information on its behavior in the formulation medium was provided up to now. The method used allowed researchers to work using formulation as the mobile phase with excellent recoveries and LoQ/LoD, discerning between stable and degraded samples, and detecting, when present, aggregates up to 108 Da. The native state of Liraglutide was assessed and found to be an association into pentamers, with a non-spherical conformation. Combined to benchmark analyses, the sameness study was complete and descriptive, also giving insight on the aggregation process and covalent/non-covalent aggregate types.

Expanding the Use of Dynamic Electrostatic Repulsion Reversed-Phase Chromatography: An Effective Elution Mode for Peptides Control and Analysis.

Bioactive peptides are increasingly used in clinical practice. Reversed-phase chromatography using formic or trifluoroacetic acid in the mobile phase is the most widely used technique for their analytical control. However, sometimes it does not prove sufficient to solve challenging chromatographic problems. In the search for alternative elution modes, the dynamic electrostatic repulsion reversed-phase was evaluated to separate eight probe peptides characterised by different molecular weights and isoelectric points. This technique, which involves TBAHSO4 in the mobile phase, provided the lowest asymmetry and peak width at half height values and the highest in peak capacity (about 200 for a gradient of 30 min) and resolution concerning the classic reversed-phase. All analyses were performed using cutting-edge columns developed for peptide separation, and the comparison of the chromatograms obtained shows how the dynamic electrostatic repulsion reversed-phase is an attractive alternative to the classic reversed-phase.

Downstream Processing of Therapeutic Peptides by Means of Preparative Liquid Chromatography.

The market of biomolecules with therapeutic scopes, including peptides, is continuously expanding. The interest towards this class of pharmaceuticals is stimulated by the broad range of bioactivities that peptides can trigger in the human body. The main production methods to obtain peptides are enzymatic hydrolysis, microbial fermentation, recombinant approach and, especially, chemical synthesis. None of these methods, however, produce exclusively the target product. Other species represent impurities that, for safety and pharmaceutical quality reasons, must be removed. The remarkable production volumes of peptide mixtures have generated a strong interest towards the purification procedures, particularly due to their relevant impact on the manufacturing costs. The purification method of choice is mainly preparative liquid chromatography, because of its flexibility, which allows one to choose case-by-case the experimental conditions that most suitably fit that particular purification problem. Different modes of chromatography that can cover almost every separation case are reviewed in this article. Additionally, an outlook to a very recent continuous chromatographic process (namely Multicolumn Countercurrent Solvent Gradient Purification, MCSGP) and future perspectives regarding purification strategies will be considered at the end of this review.

A new sensitive and subunit-selective molecular tool for investigating protein kinase A in the brain.

Despite cellular complexity, a limited number of small molecules act as intracellular second messengers. Protein kinase A (PKA) is the main transducer of the information carried by cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). Recently, cellular imaging has achieved major technical advancements, although the search for more specific and sensitive low-molecular-weight probes to explore subcellular events involving second messengers is still in progress. The convergent synthesis of a novel, fluorescent small molecule comprising the cAMP structure and a rhodamine-based fluorescent residue, connected through a flexible linker, is described here. The interaction motif of this compound with PKA was investigated in silico using a blind docking approach, comparing its theoretical binding energy with the one calculated for cAMP. Moreover, the predicted pharmacokinetic properties were also computed and discussed. The new probe was tested on three areas of the mouse central nervous system (parietal cerebral cortex, hippocampus, and cerebellar cortex) with different fixation methods demonstrating remarkable selectivity towards the PKA RIα subunit. The probe showed overall better performances when compared to other commercially available fluorescent cAMP analogues, acting at lower concentrations, and providing stable labeling.

Innovative chemical synthesis and conformational hints on the lipopeptide liraglutide.

Liraglutide is a new generation lipopeptide drug used for the treatment of type II diabetes. In this work, we describe new approaches for its preparation fully by chemical methods. The key step of these strategies is the synthesis in solution of the Lys/γ-Glu building block, Fmoc-Lys-(Pal-γ-Glu-OtBu)-OH, in which Lys and Glu residues are linked through their side chains and γ-Glu is N(α) -palmitoylated. This dipeptide derivative is then inserted into the peptide sequence on solid phase. As liraglutide is obtained with great purity and high yield, our approach can be particularly attractive for an industrial production. We also report here the results of a circular dichroism conformational analysis in a membrane mimetic environment that offers new insights into the mechanism of action of liraglutide. Copyright © 2016 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In-hospital use of antibiotics in internal medicine: A cross-sectional study before, during and after the COVID-19 pandemic in a COVID-19-free ward.

BACKGROUND: Coronavirus Disease-19 (COVID-19) pandemic impacted the use of antibiotics in hospitalized patients. However, most data on antibiotic therapy (AT) were recorded in COVID-19 settings. This study analyzed the appropriateness of AT in the real-world scenario of a COVID-19-free internal medicine ward before, during, and after the pandemic. METHODS: Clinical information of hospitalized patients was collected, and data related to AT prescription were analyzed. The appropriateness of AT was independently assessed by two specialists in internal medicine and infectious disease, combining evidence-based guidelines with a validated tool. RESULTS: Records of 1249 patients were analyzed: AT was prescribed in 229 (55.2 %) patients before, 134 (53.2 %) patients during, and 315 (54.1 %) patients after COVID-19 pandemic. Compared to the pre-pandemic period, there was a decrease in monotherapy with 3rd and 4th generation cephalosporins and fluoroquinolones, and an increase in ß-lactams + ß-lactamase inhibitors and antibiotic combinations. Furthermore, AT was longer and more expensive during the pandemic, with duration and cost remaining higher after its end. The inappropriateness of AT increased during and after COVID-19 pandemic. Compared to the pre-pandemic period, inappropriate AT was longer and more expensive than appropriate AT. The COVID-19 pandemic had a significant impact on changes related to AT type and antibiotic classes. CONCLUSIONS: The COVID-19 pandemic increased the inappropriateness of AT in a COVID-19-free internal medicine ward. Most modifications persist despite the end of pandemic, potentially leading to negative effects on in-hospital antimicrobial resistance. There is an urgent need to re-establish antimicrobial stewardship policies to address the longer-term global threat of antimicrobial resistance.

Assessing the performance of new chromatographic technologies for the separation of peptide epimeric impurities: the case of Icatibant.

The biopharmaceutical industry faces the challenge of efficiently characterising impurity profiles of therapeutical peptides, also due to their complex polar and ionisable attributes. This research explores the potential of advanced chromatographic techniques to address this challenge. The study compares dynamic electrostatic repulsion reversed phase (d-ERRP) to its counterparts (static ERRP and ion pair reversed phase IP-RP) in analysing Icatibant and its elusive epimeric impurity, [L-Arg]1-Icatibant and highlights its exceptional capabilities in generating symmetric peaks, mitigating the common tailing phenomenon, and serving as a steadfast guardian of column longevity. The result highlights d-ERRP as a pioneering tool in the domain of liquid chromatography, fostering its role as a reference technique for the analysis of therapeutic peptides.

Dimethyl carbonate as a green alternative to acetonitrile in reversed-phase liquid chromatography. Part II: Purification of a therapeutic peptide.

Preparative liquid chromatography in reversed phase conditions (RPLC) is the most common approach adopted in the downstream processing for the purification of therapeutic peptides at industrial level. Due to the strict requirements on the quality imposed by the Regulatory Agencies, routinary methods based on the use of aqueous buffers and acetonitrile (ACN) as organic modifier are commonly used, where ACN is practically the only available choice for the purification of peptide derivatives. However, ACN is known to suffers of many shortcomings, such as drastic shortage in the market, high costs and, most importantly, it shows unwanted toxicity for human health and environment, which led it among the less environmentally friendly ones. For this reason, the selection of a suitable alternative becomes crucial for the sustainable downstream processing of peptides and biopharmaceuticals in general. In this paper, a promising green solvent, namely dimethyl carbonate (DMC) has been used for the separation of a peptide not only in linear conditions but also for its purification through non-linear overloaded chromatography. The performance of the process has been compared to that achievable with the common method where ACN is used as organic modifier and to that obtained with two additional solvents (namely ethanol and isopropanol), already used as greener alternatives to ACN. This proof-of-concept study showed that, thanks to its higher elution strength, DMC can be considered a green alternative to ACN, since it allows to reduce method duration while reaching good purities and recoveries. Indeed, at a target purity fixed to 98.5 %, DMC led to the best productivity with respect to all the other solvents tested, confirming its suitability as a sustainable alternative to ACN for the purification of complex biopharmaceutical products.

Investigation of the GnRH antagonist degarelix isomerization in biological matrices.

One of the main objectives of peptide drug design is the improvement of peptide pharmacokinetics with maintaining biological activity, which can be achieved by the complex modifications of the primary structure of the peptides. However, these changes often lead to the formation of peculiar impurities in the peptide drugs and their metabolites, which require the development of advanced analytical methods to properly assess their content. Here, we investigated the degradation of the potent long-acting GnRH antagonist degarelix in various biologic media by the tailor-made HPLC method, which allows precise determination of 5-Aph(Hyd)-degarelix isomer, an impurity found in the degarelix active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) during its manufacturing. Unexpectedly, we discovered a rapid and irreversible conversion of degarelix API into the corresponding hydantoin isomer in serum, suggesting that this impurity can be also a potential drug metabolite in vivo. This finding underlines the importance of the development of more accurate and performing analytical techniques to correctly characterize the chemical composition of the manufactured drugs and their behavior under physiological conditions.

Dimethyl carbonate as a green alternative to acetonitrile in reversed-phase liquid chromatography. Part I: Separation of small molecules.

Nowadays, environmental problems are drawing the attention of governments and international organisations, which are therefore encouraging the transition to green industrial processes and approaches. In this context, chemists can help indicate a suitable direction. Beside the efforts focused on greening synthetic approaches, currently also analytical techniques and separations are under observation, especially those employing large volumes of organic solvents, such as reversed-phase liquid chromatography (RPLC). Acetonitrile has always been considered the best performing organic modifier for RPLC applications, due to its chemical features (complete miscibility in water, UV transparency, low viscosity etc); nevertheless, it suffers of severe shortcomings, and most importantly, it does not fully comply with Environmental, Health and Safety (EHS) requirements. For these reasons, alternative greener solvents are being investigated, especially easily available alcohols. In this work, chromatographic performance of the most common solvents used in reversed-phase chromatography, i.e., acetonitrile, ethanol and isopropanol, have been compared to a scarcely used solvent, dimethyl carbonate (DMC). The analytes of interest were two small molecules, caffeine and paracetamol, whose kinetics and retention behaviour obtained with the four solvents have been compared, and all contributions to band broadening have been assessed. Results about kinetic performance are very promising, indicating that a small amount (7 % v/v) of DMC is able to produce the same efficiency as a 2.5-times larger ACN volume (18 % v/v), and larger efficiency than alcohols. This paper reports, for the first time, fundamental studies concerning the mass transfer phenomena when DMC is used as an organic solvent in RPLC, and, together with the companion paper, represents the results of a research whose final aim was to discover whether DMC is suitable for chromatographic applications both in linear and preparative conditions.

Density functional theory calculation of cyclic carboxylic phosphorus mixed anhydrides as possible intermediates in biochemical reactions: implications for the Pro-Tide approach.

Cyclic acyl phosphoramidates (CAPAs) are important components in several fundamental biological reactions such as protein synthesis and phosphorylation. These structures are particularly interesting in the nucleotide pro-drug approach, Pro-Tide, since they are putative intermediates in one of the hydrolysis steps required for activation. The central role played by the amino acid carboxylate function suggests first the formation of a cyclic mixed phosphorus anhydride, rapidly followed by water attack. To investigate such speculations, we performed quantum mechanical calculations using the B3LYP/6-311+G** level of theory for the plausible mechanisms of action considered. In the five-membered ring case, transition state theory demonstrated how the overall, gas-phase, mechanism of action could be split into two in-line addition-elimination (A-E) steps separated by a penta-coordinate phosphorane intermediate. The difference between five-membered and six-membered ring first A-E was also explored, revealing a single step, unimolecular reaction for the six-membered ring A-E profile. Implicit solvent contribution further confirmed the importance of CAPAs as reactive intermediates in such kind of reactions. Lastly, the second A-E pathway was analyzed to understand the complete pathway of the reaction. This analysis is the first attempt to clarify the putative mechanism of action involved in the activation of Pro-Tides and casts light also on the possible mechanism of action involved in primordial protein syntheses, strengthening the hypothesis of a common cyclic mixed phosphorus anhydride species as a common intermediate.

Design of photocontrolled RNA-binding peptidomimetics.

Positively constrained: the first examples of photocontrolled RNA binding peptides are described. The large number of positively charged sides chains in the Rev response element (RRE) of an HIV type I targeting α-helix imposes constraints on the choice of azobenzene-derived crosslinker.

Electromotive instillation of mitomycin immediately before transurethral resection for patients with primary urothelial non-muscle invasive bladder cancer: a randomised controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The clinical effect of intravesical instillation of chemotherapy immediately after transurethral resection of bladder tumours (TURBT) has recently been questioned, despite its recommendation in guidelines. Our aim was to compare TURBT alone with immediate post-TURBT intravesical passive diffusion (PD) of mitomycin and immediate pre-TURBT intravesical electromotive drug administration (EMDA) of mitomycin in non-muscle invasive bladder cancer. METHODS: We did a multicentre, randomised, parallel-group study in patients with primary non-muscle invasive bladder cancer in three centres in Italy between Jan 1, 1994, and Dec 31, 2003. Patients were randomly assigned to receive treatment by means of stratified blocked randomisation across six strata. Patients and physicians giving the interventions were aware of assignment, but it was masked from outcome assessors and data analysts. Patients were randomly assigned to receive TURBT alone, immediate post-TURBT instillation of 40 mg PD mitomycin dissolved in 50 mL sterile water infused over 60 min, or immediate pre-TURBT instillation of 40 mg EMDA mitomycin dissolved in 100 mL sterile water with intravesical 20 mA pulsed electric current for 30 min. Our primary endpoints were recurrence rate and disease-free interval. Analyses were done by intention to treat. Follow-up for our trial is complete. This study is registered with ClinicalTrials.gov, number NCT01149174. FINDINGS: 124 patients were randomly assigned to receive TURBT alone, 126 to receive immediate post-TURBT PD mitomycin, and 124 to receive immediate pre-TURBT EMDA mitomycin. 22 patients were excluded from our analyses because they did meet our eligibility criteria after TURBT: 11 had stage pT2 disease and 11 had carcinoma in situ. Median follow-up was 86 months (IQR 57-125). Patients assigned to receive EMDA mitomycin before TURBT had a lower rate of recurrence (44 [38%] of 117) than those assigned to receive PD mitomycin after TURBT (70 [59%] of 119) and TURBT alone (74 [64%] of 116; log-rank p<0·0001). Patients assigned to receive EMDA mitomycin before TURBT also had a higher disease-free interval (52 months, IQR 32-184) than those assigned to receive PD mitomycin after TURBT (16 months, 12-168) and TURBT alone (12 months, 12-37; log-rank p<0·0001). We recorded persistent bladder symptoms after TURBT in 18 (16%) of 116 patients in the TURBT-alone group (duration 3-7 days), 37 (31%) of 119 in the PD mitomycin post-TURBT group (duration 20-30 days), and 24 (21%) of 117 in the EMDA mitomycin pre-TURBT group (duration 7-12 days); haematuria after TURBT in eight (7%) of 116 patients in the TURBT-alone group, 16 (13%) of 119 in the PD mitomycin post-TURBT group, and 11 (9%) of 117 in the EMDA mitomycin pre-TURBT group; and bladder perforation after TURBT in five (4%) of 116 patients in the TURBT-alone group, nine (8%) of 119 in the PD mitomycin post-TURBT group, and seven (6%) of 117 in the EMDA mitomycin pre-TURBT group. INTERPRETATION: Intravesical EMDA mitomycin before TURBT is feasible and safe; moreover, it reduces recurrence rates and enhances the disease-free interval compared with intravesical PD mitomycin after TURBT and TURBT alone. FUNDING: None.

A New Approach to Supramolecular Structure Determination in Pharmaceutical Preparation of Self-Assembling Peptides: A Case Study of Lanreotide Autogel.

The supramolecular structure in peptides' prolonged-released gel formulations is the most critical parameter for the determination of the pharmaceutical profile of the drug. Here, we report our investigation on lanreotide Autogel as a case study. For the first time, we describe the use of the pulsed field gradient (PFG) diffusion-ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) magic-angle spinning NMR to characterize the supramolecular self-assembly and molecular mobility of different samples of lanreotide Autogel formulations prepared according to different formulation protocols. The diffusion coefficient was used to calculate the hydrodynamic radii of supramolecular assemblies and build relative molecular models. DOSY data were integrated with NMR imaging (MRI) measurements and atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging.

Discovery of Novel Allosteric EGFR L858R Inhibitors for the Treatment of Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer as a Single Agent or in Combination with Osimertinib.

Addressing resistance to third-generation EGFR TKIs such as osimertinib via the EGFRC797S mutation remains a highly unmet need in EGFR-driven non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). Herein, we present the discovery of the allosteric EGFR inhibitor 57, a novel fourth-generation inhibitor to overcome EGFRC797S-mediated resistance in patients harboring the activating EGFRL858R mutation. 57 exhibits an improved potency compared to previous allosteric EGFR inhibitors. To our knowledge, 57 is the first allosteric EGFR inhibitor that demonstrates robust tumor regression in a mutant EGFRL858R/C797S tumor model. Additionally, 57 is active in an H1975 EGFRL858R/T790M NSCLC xenograft model and shows superior efficacy in combination with osimertinib compared to the single agents. Our data highlight the potential of 57 as a single agent against EGFRL858R/C797S and EGFRL858R/T790M/C797S and as combination therapy for EGFRL858R- and EGFRL858R/T790M-driven NSCLC.

Tuning G-quadruplex vs double-stranded DNA recognition in regioisomeric lysyl-peptidyl-anthraquinone conjugates.

Anthraquinone is a versatile scaffold to provide effective DNA binders. This planar system can be easily conjugated to protonable side chains: the nature of the lateral groups and their positions around the tricyclic moiety largely affect the DNA recognition process in terms of binding affinity and mode, as well as sequence and structure of the target nucleic acid. Starting from an anthracenedione system symmetrically functionalized with N-terminal lysyl residues, we incremented the length of side chains by introducing a Gly, Ala, or Phe spacer, characterized by different flexibility, lipophilicity, and bulkiness. Moreover, 2,6, 2,7, 1,8, and 1,5 regioisomers were examined to yield a small bis(lysyl-peptidyl) anthracenedione library. By merging spectroscopic, enzymatic, and cellular results, we showed that the proper combination of a basic aminoacid (Lys) with a more hydrophobic residue (Phe) can provide selective G-quadruplex recognition, in particular when side chains are located at positions 2,6 or 2,7. In fact, while these derivatives effectively bind G-quadruplex structures, they behave at the same time as rather poor double-stranded DNA intercalators. As a result, the Lys-Phe substituted anthraquinones are poorly cytotoxic but still able to promote a senescence mechanism in cancer cells. This combination of chemical and biological properties foresees potentially valuable applications in anticancer medicinal chemistry.

Palladium Catalyst Recycling for Heck-Cassar-Sonogashira Cross-Coupling Reactions in Green Solvent/Base Blend.

The identification of a green, versatile, user-friendly, and efficient methodology is necessary to facilitate the use of Heck-Cassar-Sonogashira (HCS) cross-coupling reaction in drug discovery and industrial production in the pharmaceutical segment. The Heck-Cassar and Sonogashira protocols, using N-hydroxyethylpyrrolidone (HEP)/water/N,N,N',N'-tetramethyl guanidine (TMG) as green solvent/base mixture and sulfonated phosphine ligands, allowed to recycle the catalyst, always guaranteeing high yields and fast conversion under mild conditions, with aryl iodides, bromides, and triflates. No catalyst leakage or metal contamination of the final product were observed during the HCS recycling. To our knowledge, a turnover number (TON) up to 2375, a turnover frequency (TOF) of 158 h-1 , and a process mass intensity (PMI) around 7 that decreased around 3 after solvent, base, and palladium recovery, represent one of the best results to date using a sustainable protocol. The Heck-Cassar protocol using sSPhos was successfully applied to the telescoped synthesis of Erlotinib (TON: 1380; TOF: 46 h-1 ).