Multimodality ultrasound assessment of the spleen: Normal appearances and emergency abnormalities.

This paper summarizes the main splenic emergencies and their ultrasonographic findings to orient appropriate patient management. US requires minimal preparation time and allows to examine the parenchyma and to detect intraperitoneal fluid collections, which may be indirect evidence of solid organ injuries. In this paper, we analyze the role of B-mode, Doppler and Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound in the diagnosis of splenic emergencies, with a particular focus on splenic infarction, infection, traumatic injuries and vascular splenic anomalies.

Abdominal compartment syndrome: what radiologist needs to know.

The intra-abdominal hypertension (IAH) and the abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) are life-threatening conditions with a significant rate of mortality; therefore, early detection is paramount in their optimal management. IAH is diagnosed when the intra-abdominal pressure (IAP) is more than 12 mmHg. It can occur when the intra-abdominal volume increases (ileus, ascites, trauma, pancreatitis, etc.) and/or the abdominal wall compliance decreases. IAH can cause decreased venous flow, low cardiac output, renal impairment, and decreased respiratory compliance. Consequently, these complications can lead to multiple organ failure and induce the abdominal compartment syndrome (ACS) when IAP rises above 20 mmHg. The diagnosis is usually made with intravesical pressure measurement. However, this measurement was not always possible to obtain; therefore, alternative diagnostic techniques should be considered. In this setting, computed tomography (CT) may play a crucial role, allowing the detection and characterization of pathological conditions that may lead to IAH. This review is focused on the pathogenesis, clinical features, and radiological findings of ACS, because their presence allows radiologists to raise the suspicion of IAH/ACS in critically ill patients, guiding the most appropriate treatment.

Pneumothorax and pulmonary hemorrhage after CT-guided lung biopsy: incidence, clinical significance and correlation.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the incidence and clinical significance of pneumothorax (PTX) and pulmonary hemorrhage (PH) after CT-guided lung biopsy (CT-LB). To test correlations of PTX and chest tube insertion (CTI) with PH and other imaging and procedural parameters. METHODS: Pre-procedural CT and CT-LB scans of 904 patients were examined. Incidence of PTX and PH and PH location (type-1 along needle track; type-2 perilesional) and severity according to its thickness (low grade < 6 mm; high grade > 6 mm) were recorded. PTX was considered clinically significant if treated with CTI, PH if treated with endoscopic/endovascular procedure. Binary logistic regression analyses were used to determine the effects of different imaging and procedural parameters on the likelihood to develop PTX, CTI and PH and to define their correlation. RESULTS: PTX occurred in 306/904 cases (33.8%); CTI was required in 18/306 (5.9%). PH occurred in 296/904 cases (32.7%), and no case required treatment. Nodule-to-pleura distance (ORPTX = 1.052; ORCTI = 1.046; ORPH 1.077), emphysema (ORPTX = 1.287; ORPH = 0.573), procedure time (ORPTX = 1.019; ORCTI = 1.039; ORPH = 1.019), target size (ORPTX = 0.982; ORPH = 0.968) and needle gauge (ORPTX = 0.487; ORCTI = 4.311; ORPH = 2.070) showed statistically significant correlation to PTX, CTI and PH. Type-1 PH showed a protective effect against PTX and CTI (ORPTX = 0.503; ORCTI = 0.416). CONCLUSION: PTX and PH have similar incidence after CT-guided lung biopsy. PH along needle track may represent a protective factor against development of PTX and against PTX requiring CTI.

COVID-19: high-resolution computed tomography findings in the first 64 patients admitted to the Hospital of Cremona, the epicentre of the pandemic in Europe.

PURPOSE: In December 2019, a new coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) was identified as being responsible for the pulmonary infection called COVID-19. On 21 February 2020, the first autochthonous case of COVID-19 was detected in Italy. Our goal is to report the most common chest computed tomography (CT) findings identified in 64 patients, in the initial phase of COVID-19. METHODS: Sixty-four chest high-resolution computed tomography (HRCT) examinations performed at the Radiology Unit of the Hospital of Cremona, from 22 to 29 February 2020, of 64 patients during first week of hospitalization for COVID-19 were retrospectively evaluated. All cases were confirmed by real-time RT-PCR for SARS-CoV-2. Image analysis was independently conducted by 2 radiologists with 10 years and 1 year of experience in chest imaging. The inter-observer agreement was obtained by applying a Cohen's κ test. RESULTS: The average age of patients was 67.1 years (± 12.2); men 42 (66%). HRCT was performed on the 5th (± 1.5) day of hospitalization. More frequently, the initial CT changes of the lung show more or less extensive areas of ground-glass, as single pattern or with parenchymal consolidations. Coronavirus lung involvement appears very frequently multi-lobar, bilateral, and it concerns both subpleural and central regions. An excellent agreement (κ: 0.88-1, CI: 0.79-1.01, p < 0.05) concerning CT findings between the 2 operators was reached. CONCLUSIONS: Our data suggest that detection of the most frequent pulmonary CT-scan changes, in the early stages of COVID-19, can be performed, with excellent agreement, among readers with different experience, and consequently attribute their exact diagnostic value, in an appropriate clinical and environmental exposure setting.

Transthoracic computed tomography-guided lung biopsy in the new era of personalized medicine.

Computed tomography-guided lung biopsy is a valid and safe procedure for characterizing pulmonary nodules. In the past years, this technique has been mainly used to confirm the malignant nature of undetermined pulmonary lesions; however, today its role has been completely renewed. With the advent of target therapy and immunotherapy, it has arisen for lung cancer, in inoperable patients, the necessity to obtain adequate bioptical material to perform a correct molecular characterization of the lesion. Moreover, the possibility of acquired drug-resistance mechanisms makes it necessary in some cases to rebiopsy these lesions over time. For these reasons, it is likely that the request of computed tomography-guided lung biopsy will increase in the future, therefore every radiologist should be confident with its most important aspects.

Safe and Informed Use of Gadolinium-Based Contrast Agent in Body Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Where We Were and Where We Are.

Gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) have helped to improve the role of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for the diagnosis and treatment of diseases. There are currently nine different commercially available gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) that can be used for body MRI cases, and which are classifiable according to their structures (cyclic or linear) or biodistribution (extracellular-space agents, target/specific-agents, and blood-pool agents). The aim of this review is to illustrate the commercially available MRI contrast agents, their effect on imaging, and adverse reaction on the body, with the goal to lead to their proper selection in different clinical contexts. When we have to choose between the different GBCAs, we have to consider several factors: (1) safety and clinical impact; (2) biodistribution and diagnostic application; (3) higher relaxivity and better lesion detection; (4) higher stability and lower tissue deposit; (5) gadolinium dose/concentration and lower volume injection; (6) pulse sequences and protocol optimization; (7) higher contrast-to-noise ratio at 3.0 T than at 1.5 T. Knowing the patient's clinical information, the relevant GBCAs properties and their effect on body MRI sequences are the key features to perform efficient and high-quality MRI examination.

MRI-Cavernosography: A New Diagnostic Tool for Erectile Dysfunction Due to Venous Leakage: A Diagnostic Chance.

Erectile dysfunction caused by venous leakage is a vascular disease in which blood fails to accumulate in the corpora cavernosa due to the abrupt drainage of blood from the penis secondary to an abnormal venous network that affects 1 to 2% of men under 25 years old and about 10 to 20% over 60 years old, who do not raise a sufficient erection for penetrative sex. The study of the venous leak and its characterization in young patients with erectile dysfunction represent a diagnostic challenge, and imaging remains the best way to diagnose this condition. In the article, it is described the methods of execution and the diagnostic role of the cavernous MRI in the study of vasogenic erectile dysfunction from the venous leak, proposing it as a good alternative to the cavernous CT, considering the satisfactory results in terms of diagnostic interpretation, the absence of ionizing radiation, the higher soft tissue resolution of the imaging method and the lower administration of contrast agent.

Point-of-Care Lung Ultrasound in the Intensive Care Unit-The Dark Side of Radiology: Where Do We Stand?

Patients in intensive care units (ICUs) are critically ill and require constant monitoring of clinical conditions. Due to the severity of the underlying disease and the need to monitor devices, imaging plays a crucial role in critically ill patients' care. Given the clinical complexity of these patients, who typically need respiratory assistance as well as continuous monitoring of vital functions and equipment, computed tomography (CT) can be regarded as the diagnostic gold standard, although it is not a bedside diagnostic technique. Despite its limitations, portable chest X-ray (CXR) is still today an essential diagnostic tool used in the ICU. Being a widely accessible imaging technique, which can be performed at the patient's bedside and at a low healthcare cost, it provides additional diagnostic support to the patient's clinical management. In recent years, the use of point-of-care lung ultrasound (LUS) in ICUs for procedure guidance, diagnosis, and screening has proliferated, and it is usually performed at the patient's bedside. This review illustrates the role of point-of-care LUS in ICUs from a purely radiological point of view as an advanced method in ICU CXR reports to improve the interpretation and monitoring of lung CXR findings.

Hepatobiliary-specific magnetic resonance contrast agents: role in biliary trauma.

Non-iatrogenic traumatic bile duct injuries (NI-TBIs) are a rare complication after abdominal trauma, with an estimated prevalence of 2.8-7.4% in patients underwent blunt liver injuries. They may be overlooked in patients with extensive multi-organ trauma, particularly hepatic, splenic and duodenal injuries, which have a prevalence of 91%, 54% and 54%, respectively. Whole body contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CE-CT) represents the examination of choice in polytraumatized hemodynamically stable patients, as it allows a comprehensive evaluation of vascular, parenchymal, bone and soft tissues injuries, but the diagnosis of any biliary leaks is limited to the evaluation of nonspecific imaging findings and on findings evolution in the follow-up, such as the progressive growth of fluid collections. Furthermore, biliary complications, such as the occurrence of biloma or biliary peritonitis, may become manifest several days after the initial trauma, often with unspecific progressive signs and symptoms. Although CT and ultrasonography can suggest bile leaks based on several nonspecific imaging findings (e.g., fluid collections), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) using hepatobiliary contrast agents helps to identify the site and entity of post-traumatic biliary disruption. Indeed, MRI allows to obtain cholangiographic sequences that may show post-traumatic active bile leakage and cysto-biliary communications by direct visualisation of contrast material extravasation into fluid collections, increasing the preoperative accuracy of NI-TBIs. Few data are available about MRI use in the follow-up of trauma with NI-TBI management. So, in the present mini review, its role is reviewed and our preliminary experience in this field is reported.

Non-Operative Management of Polytraumatized Patients: Body Imaging beyond CT.

In the transition from the operative to the conservative approach for the polytraumatized patients who undergo blunt trauma, diagnostic imaging has assumed a pivotal role, currently offering various opportunities, particularly in the follow-up of these patients. The choice of the most suitable imaging method in this setting mainly depends on the injury complications we are looking for, the patient conditions (mobilization, cooperation, medications, allergies and age), the biological invasiveness, and the availability of each imaging method. Computed Tomography (CT) represents the "standard" imaging technique in the polytraumatized patient due to the high diagnostic performance when a correct imaging protocol is adopted, despite suffering from invasiveness due to radiation dose and intravenous contrast agent administration. Ultrasound (US) is a readily available technology, cheap, bedside performable and integrable with intravenous contrast agent (Contrast enhanced US-CEUS) to enhance the diagnostic performance, but it may suffer particularly from limited panoramicity and operator dependance. Magnetic Resonance (MR), until now, has been adopted in specific contexts, such as biliopancreatic injuries, but in recent experiences, it showed a great potential in the follow-up of polytraumatized patients; however, its availability may be limited in some context, and there are specific contraindications, such as as claustrophobia and the presence non-MR compatible devices. In this article, the role of each imaging method in the body-imaging follow-up of adult polytraumatized patients will be reviewed, enhancing the value of integrated imaging, as shown in several cases from our experience.

An update on pyelonephritis: role of contrast enhancement ultrasound (CEUS).

Acute pyelonephritis (APN) is a bacterial infection causing inflammation of the kidneys. Diagnosis is usually based on clinical and laboratory findings. Imaging is required if a complication is suspected in acute pyelonephritis to assess the nature and extent of the lesions and to detect underlying causes. CT represents the current imaging modality of choice in clinical practice. CEUS is an alternative that has been proven to be equally accurate in the detection of acute pyelonephritis renal lesions. CEUS allows us to distinguish small simple nephritic involvement from abscess complications and to follow their evolution over time during antibiotic therapy. The absence of ionizing radiation and the lack of nephrotoxicity make CEUS an ideal tool in the study of pyelonephritis.

Pelvic Pain in Reproductive Age: US Findings.

Pelvic pain in reproductive age often represents a diagnostic challenge due to the variety of potential causes characterized by overlapping clinical symptoms, including gynecological and other disorders (e.g., entero-colic or urological). It is also necessary to determine if there is a possibility of pregnancy to rule out any related complications, such as ectopic pregnancy. Although ultrasound (US), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are strongly integrated, the choice of which is the ideal diagnostic tool should be guided both by clinical suspicion (gynecological vs. non-gynecological cause) and by the risk ratio-benefit (ionizing radiation and instrumental costs), too. The didactic objective proposed by this review consists in the diagnosis of the cause and differential of pelvic pain in reproductive age by describing and critically analyzing the US diagnostic clues of the most frequent adnexal, uterine, and vascular causes.

The Technique and Advantages of Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound in the Diagnosis and Follow-Up of Traumatic Abdomen Solid Organ Injuries.

Trauma is one of the most common causes of death or permanent disability in young people, so a timely diagnostic approach is crucial. In polytrauma patients, CEUS (contrast enhanced ultrasound) has been shown to be more sensitive than US (ultrasound) for the detection of solid organ injuries, improving the identification and grading of traumatic abdominal lesions with levels of sensitivity and specificity similar to those seen with MDCT (multidetector tomography). CEUS is recommended for the diagnostic evaluation of hemodynamically stable patients with isolated blunt moderate-energy abdominal traumas and the diagnostic follow-up of conservatively managed abdominal traumas. In this pictorial review, we illustrate the advantages and disadvantages of CEUS and the procedure details with tips and tricks during the investigation of blunt moderate-energy abdominal trauma as well as during follow-up in non-operative management.

Common and Uncommon Errors in Emergency Ultrasound.

Errors in emergency ultrasound (US) have been representing an increasing problem in recent years thanks to several unique features related to both the inherent characteristics of the discipline and to the latest developments, which every medical operator should be aware of. Because of the subjective nature of the interpretation of emergency US findings, it is more prone to errors than other diagnostic imaging modalities. The misinterpretation of US images should therefore be considered as a serious risk in diagnosis. The etiology of error is multi-factorial: it depends on environmental factors, patients and the technical skills of the operator; it is influenced by intrinsic US artifacts, poor clinical correlation, US-setting errors and anatomical variants; and it is conditioned by the lack of a methodologically correct clinical approach and excessive diagnostic confidence too. In this review, we evaluate the common and uncommon sources of diagnostic errors in emergency US during clinical practice, showing how to recognize and avoid them.

Role of Ultrasound in the Assessment and Differential Diagnosis of Pelvic Pain in Pregnancy.

Pelvic pain (PP) is common in pregnant women and can be caused by several diseases, including obstetrics, gynaecological, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and vascular disorders. Timely and accurate diagnosis as well as prompt treatment are crucial for the well-being of the mother and foetus. However, these are very challenging. It should be considered that the physiological changes occurring during pregnancy may confuse the diagnosis. In this setting, ultrasound (US) represents the first-line imaging technique since it is readily and widely available and does not use ionizing radiations. In some cases, US may be conclusive for the diagnosis (e.g., if it detects no foetal cardiac activity in suspected spontaneous abortion; if it shows an extrauterine gestational sac in suspected ectopic pregnancy; or if it reveals a dilated, aperistaltic, and blind-ending tubular structure arising from the cecum in suspicious of acute appendicitis). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), overcoming some limits of US, represents the second-line imaging technique when an US is negative or inconclusive, to detect the cause of bowel obstruction, or to characterize adnexal masses.

Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) in a remote area of Sierra Leone: impact on patient management and training program for community health officers.

PURPOSE: Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) has been shown to have unique potential in low-income countries. Physicians and other healthcare providers can perform effective scans after a short period of training. This study aimed to evaluate indications and utility of ultrasonography as the main imaging service in a poor rural sub-Saharan region of Africa. Second, it evaluated the effect of a short training on POCUS for non-physician health providers and their agreement with a group of Italian physicians. METHODS: This study was undertaken in Lokomasama-a chiefdom of Sierra Leone-between January and February 2019. Based on clinical indications, ultrasound findings were evaluated with respect to the initial diagnostic hypothesis. Volunteer doctors conducted a theoretical-practical training of two community health officers (CHO) on chest and abdominal POCUS and E-FAST protocol. The evaluation of the achieved technical skills was obtained with a numeric score. Inter-observer agreement concerning ultrasound diagnosis based on clinical indications was assessed. RESULTS: A total of 196 consecutive patients underwent ultrasound examination. POCUS findings were in keeping with the clinical diagnosis in the 49.5%. POCUS changed the initial diagnosis in 17% of cases. After training, E-FAST and POCUS knowledge score was 90% and 83%, respectively. An excellent inter-observer agreement (0.88) was found between CHOs and physicians. CONCLUSION: POCUS represents a powerful diagnostic tool in a low-income country that may improve the patient management. Training of non-physician health providers is doable and may improve healthcare management in resource-limited settings.

Iliopsoas bursitis: The role of diagnostic imaging in detection, differential diagnosis and treatment.

Iliopsoas bursitis is characterized by distension of the iliopsoas muscle bursa due to synovial fluid and/or hypertrophic synovium. Hip disease is usually associated with it, however, isolated bursitis is also present. Clinically Diagnosing iliopsoas bursitis can be difficult, and imaging is usually required to differentiate iliopsoas bursitis from other inguinal masses such as lymphadenopathy, hernias, and tumors. We present the case of a 45-year-old athletic patient who underwent diagnostic examination for recurrent right hip pain and a recent development (last 3 months) of a bulky right inguinal mass.

Percutaneous needle biopsy of retroperitoneal lesions: technical developments.

Percutaneous Needle Biopsy (PNB) is the insertion of a needle into a suspected lesion or an organ with the aim to obtain cells or tissue for diagnosis. It's a relatively non-invasive procedure and is performed by radiologist under guidance of imaging techniques such as ultrasound (US), computed tomography (CT), fluoroscopy, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and positron emission tomography CT (PET-CT). The choice of imaging technique depends on the evaluation of the target lesion and patient compliance. PNB includes two categories: fine-needle aspiration biopsy (FNAB) that is the use of a thin needle (18-25 gauge) to extract cells for cytological evaluation; and core needle biopsy (CNB) that is the use of a larger needle (9-20 gauge) to extract a piece of tissue for histological evaluation. The indications for biopsy are the characterization of nature (benign or malignant) of a lesion, diagnosis and staging of tumor, and biological or immunohistochemical/genetic analisys on tissue. Success of PNB is the procurement of sufficient material to characterize lesions and to guide the patient outcome.  Major complications are rare. PNB became a useful technique in diagnosis and study of retroperitoneal lesions, because of a more suitable access to specific intra-abdominal structures, lowering the risk of injury of interposed structures (such as bowel, great vessels).

Ultrasound-guided percutaneous irrigation of calcific tendinopathy: technical developments.

Rotator cuff calcific tendinopathy (RCCT) is a common and painful shoulder disease characterised  by deposition of calcium into the rotator cuff's tendond. Different therapeutic options have been proposed, but the ultrasound-guided percutaneous irrigation (US-PICT) is been proved as an effective and safe first-line treatment. It can be performed with a single- of a double-needle tecnique, using warm saline solution to improve the dissolution of the calcific deposit. The procedure is ended with an intrabursal injection of local anaesthetics and slow-release steroids to improve the pain relief and to prevent complications. US-PICT leads to significative improvement in the shoulder funtion and pain relief in the short and long term, with a low complications rate.