Structure-activity relationships of thiadiazole agonists of the human secretin receptor.

Agonists of the secretin receptor have potential applications for diseases of the cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and metabolic systems, yet no clinically-active non-peptidyl agonists of this receptor have yet been developed. In the current work, we have identified a new small molecule lead compound with this pharmacological profile. We have prepared and characterized a systematic structure-activity series around this thiadiazole scaffold to better understand the molecular determinants of its activity. We were able to enhance the in vitro activity and to maintain the specificity of the parent compound. We found the most active candidate to be quite stable in plasma, although it was metabolized by hepatic microsomes. This chemical probe should be useful for in vitro studies and needs to be tested for in vivo pharmacological activity. This could be an important lead toward the development of a first-in-class orally active agonist of the secretin receptor, which could be useful for multiple disease states.

Mechanism of Action and Structure-Activity Relationships of Tetracyclic Small Molecules Acting as Universal Positive Allosteric Modulators of the Cholecystokinin Receptor.

As part of an ongoing effort to develop a drug targeting the type 1 cholecystokinin receptor (CCK1R) to help prevent and/or treat obesity, we recently performed a high throughput screening effort of small molecules seeking candidates that enhanced the action of the natural agonist, CCK, thus acting as positive allosteric modulators without exhibiting intrinsic agonist action. Such probes would be expected to act in a temporally finite way to enhance CCK action to induce satiety during and after a meal and potentially even modulate activity at the CCK1R in a high cholesterol environment present in some obese patients. The current work focuses on the best scaffold, representing tetracyclic molecules identified through high throughput screening we previously reported. Extensive characterization of the two top "hits" from the previous effort demonstrated them to fulfill the desired pharmacologic profile. We undertook analog-by-catalog expansion of this scaffold using 65 commercially available analogs. In this effort, we were able to eliminate an off-target effect observed for this scaffold while retaining its activity as a positive allosteric modulator of CCK1R in both normal and high cholesterol membrane environments. These insights should be useful in the rational medicinal chemical enhancement of this scaffold and in the future development of candidates to advance to pre-clinical proof-of-concept and to clinical trials.

Screening for positive allosteric modulators of cholecystokinin type 1 receptor potentially useful for management of obesity.

Obesity has become a prevailing health burden globally and particularly in the US. It is associated with many health problems, including cardiovascular disease, diabetes and poorer mental health. Hence, there is a high demand to find safe and effective therapeutics for sustainable weight loss. Cholecystokinin (CCK) has been implicated as one of the first gastrointestinal hormones to reduce overeating and suppress appetite by activating the type 1 cholecystokinin receptor (CCK1R). Several drug development campaigns have focused on finding CCK1R-specific agonists, which showed promising efficacy for reducing meal size and weight, but fell short on FDA approval, likely due to side effects associated with potent, long-lasting activation of CCK1Rs. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) without inherent agonist activity have been proposed to overcome the shortcomings of traditional, orthosteric agonists and restore CCK1R signaling in failing physiologic systems. However, drug discovery campaigns searching for such novel acting CCK1R agents remain limited. Here we report a high-throughput screening effort and the establishment of a testing funnel, which led to the identification of novel CCK1R modulators. We utilized IP-One accumulation to develop robust functional equilibrium assays tailored to either detect PAMs, agonists or non-specific activators. In addition, we established the CCK1R multiplex PAM assay as a novel method to evaluate functional selectivity capable of recording CCK1R-induced cAMP accumulation and ß-arrestin recruitment in the same well. This selection and arrangement of methods enabled the discovery of three scaffolds, which we characterized and validated in an array of functional and binding assays. We found two hits incorporating a tetracyclic scaffold that significantly enhanced CCK signaling at CCK1Rs without intrinsically activating CCK1Rs in an overexpressing system. Our results demonstrate that a well-thought-out testing funnel can identify small molecules with a distinct pharmacological profile and provides an important milestone for the development of novel potential treatments of obesity.

Discovery of a Positive Allosteric Modulator of Cholecystokinin Action at CCK1R in Normal and Elevated Cholesterol.

Drugs useful in prevention/treatment of obesity could improve health. Cholecystokinin (CCK) is a key regulator of appetite, working through the type 1 CCK receptor (CCK1R); however, full agonists have not stimulated more weight loss than dieting. We proposed an alternate strategy to target this receptor, while reducing likelihood of side effects and/or toxicity. Positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) with minimal intrinsic agonist activity would enhance CCK action, while maintaining spatial and temporal characteristics of physiologic signaling. This could correct abnormal stimulus-activity coupling observed in a high-cholesterol environment observed in obesity. We utilized high-throughput screening to identify a molecule with this pharmacological profile and studied its basis of action. Compound 1 was a weak partial agonist, with PAM activity to enhance CCK action at CCK1R, but not CCK2R, maintained in both normal and high cholesterol. Compound 1 (10 µM) did not exhibit agonist activity or stimulate internalization of CCK1R. It enhanced CCK activity by slowing the off-rate of bound hormone, increasing its binding affinity. Computational docking of Compound 1 to CCK1R yielded plausible poses. A radioiodinatable photolabile analogue retained Compound 1 pharmacology and covalently labeled CCK1R Thr211, consistent with one proposed pose. Our study identifies a novel, selective, CCK1R PAM that binds to the receptor to enhance action of CCK-8 and CCK-58 in both normal and disease-mimicking high-cholesterol environments. This facilitates the development of compounds that target the physiologic spatial and temporal engagement of CCK1R by CCK that underpins its critical role in metabolic regulation.

Discovery of small molecule positive allosteric modulators of the secretin receptor.

The secretin receptor (SCTR) is a prototypic Class B1 G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) that represents a key target for the development of therapeutics for the treatment of cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, and metabolic disorders. However, no non-peptidic molecules targeting this receptor have yet been disclosed. Using a high-throughput screening campaign directed at SCTR to identify small molecule modulators, we have identified three structurally related scaffolds positively modulating SCTRs. Here we outline a comprehensive study comprising a structure-activity series based on commercially available analogs of the three hit scaffold sets A (2-sulfonyl pyrimidines), B (2-mercapto pyrimidines) and C (2-amino pyrimidines), which revealed determinants of activity, cooperativity and specificity. Structural optimization of original hits resulted in analog B2, which substantially enhances signaling of truncated secretin peptides and prolongs residence time of labeled secretin up to 13-fold in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, we found that investigated compounds display structural similarity to positive allosteric modulators (PAMs) active at the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R), and we were able to confirm cross-recognition of that receptor by a subset of analogs. Studies using SCTR and GLP-1R mutants revealed that scaffold A, but not B and C, likely acts via two distinct mechanisms, one of which constitutes covalent modification of Cys-347GLP-1R known from GLP-1R-selective modulators. The scaffolds identified in this study might not only serve as novel pharmacologic tools to decipher SCTR- or GLP-1R-specific signaling pathways, but also as structural leads to elucidate allosteric binding sites facilitating the future development of orally available therapeutic approaches targeting these receptors.

Development of a Testing Funnel for Identification of Small-Molecule Modulators Targeting Secretin Receptors.

The secretin receptor (SCTR), a prototypical class B G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), exerts its effects mainly by activating Gαs proteins upon binding of its endogenous peptide ligand secretin. SCTRs can be found in a variety of tissues and organs across species, including the pancreas, stomach, liver, heart, lung, colon, kidney, and brain. Beyond that, modulation of SCTR-mediated signaling has therapeutic potential for the treatment of multiple diseases, such as heart failure, obesity, and diabetes. However, no ligands other than secretin and its peptide analogs have been described to regulate SCTRs, probably due to inherent challenges in family B GPCR drug discovery. Here we report creation of a testing funnel that allowed targeted detection of SCTR small-molecule activators. Pursuing the strategy to identify positive allosteric modulators (PAMs), we established a unique primary screening assay employing a mixture of three orthosteric stimulators that was compared in a screening campaign testing 12,000 small-molecule compounds. Beyond that, we developed a comprehensive set of secondary assays, such as a radiolabel-free target engagement assay and a NanoBiT (NanoLuc Binary Technology)-based approach to detect ß-arrestin-2 recruitment, all feasible in a high-throughput environment as well as capable of profiling ligands and hits regarding their effect on binding and receptor function. This combination of methods enabled the discovery of five promising scaffolds, four of which have been validated and further characterized with respect to their allosteric activities. We propose that our results may serve as starting points for developing the first in vivo active small molecules targeting SCTRs.

Time-Resolved Fluorescence Assays.

Fluorescence-based detection techniques are popular in high throughput screening due to sensitivity and cost-effectiveness. Four commonly used techniques exist, each with distinct characteristics. Fluorescence intensity assays are the simplest to run, but suffer the most from signal interference. Fluorescence polarization assays show less interference from the compounds or the instrument, but require a design that results in change of fluorophore-containing moiety size and usually have narrow assay signal window. Fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) is commonly used for detecting protein-protein interactions and is constrained not by the sizes of binding partners, but rather by the distance between fluorophores. Time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET), an advanced modification of FRET approach utilizes special fluorophores with long-lived fluorescence and earns its place near the top of fluorescent techniques list by its performance and robustness, characterized by larger assay window and minimized compound spectral interference. TR-FRET technology can be applied in biochemical or cell-based in vitro assays with ease. It is commonly used to detect modulation of protein-protein interactions and in detection of products of biochemical reactions and cellular activities.

Ebselen inhibits QSOX1 enzymatic activity and suppresses invasion of pancreatic and renal cancer cell lines.

Quiescin sulfhydryl oxidase 1 (QSOX1) is a highly conserved disulfide bond-generating enzyme that is overexpressed in diverse tumor types. Its enzymatic activity promotes the growth and invasion of tumor cells and alters extracellular matrix composition. In a nude mouse-human tumor xenograft model, tumors containing shRNA for QSOX1 grew significantly more slowly than controls, suggesting that QSOX1 supports a proliferative phenotype in vivo. High throughput screening experiments identified ebselen as an in vitro inhibitor of QSOX1 enzymatic activity. Ebselen treatment of pancreatic and renal cancer cell lines stalled tumor growth and inhibited invasion through Matrigel in vitro. Daily oral treatment with ebselen resulted in a 58% reduction in tumor growth in mice bearing human pancreatic tumor xenografts compared to controls. Mass spectrometric analysis of ebselen-treated QSOX1 mechanistically revealed that C165 and C237 of QSOX1 covalently bound to ebselen. This report details the anti-neoplastic properties of ebselen in pancreatic and renal cancer cell lines. The results here offer a "proof-of-principle" that enzymatic inhibition of QSOX1 may have clinical relevancy.

Pathophysiological role of vascular smooth muscle alkaline phosphatase in medial artery calcification.

Medial vascular calcification (MVC) is a pathological phenomenon that causes vascular stiffening and can lead to heart failure; it is common to a variety of conditions, including aging, chronic kidney disease, diabetes, obesity, and a variety of rare genetic diseases. These conditions share the common feature of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) upregulation in the vasculature. To evaluate the role of TNAP in MVC, we developed a mouse model that overexpresses human TNAP in vascular smooth muscle cells in an X-linked manner. Hemizygous overexpressor male mice (Tagln-Cre(+/-) ; Hprt(ALPL) (/Y) or TNAP-OE) show extensive vascular calcification, high blood pressure, and cardiac hypertrophy, and have a median age of death of 44 days, whereas the cardiovascular phenotype is much less pronounced and life expectancy is longer in heterozygous (Tagln-Cre(+/-) ; Hprt(ALPL) (/-) ) female TNAP-OE mice. Gene expression analysis showed upregulation of osteoblast and chondrocyte markers and decreased expression of vascular smooth muscle markers in the aortas of TNAP-OE mice. Through medicinal chemistry efforts, we developed inhibitors of TNAP with drug-like pharmacokinetic characteristics. TNAP-OE mice were treated with the prototypical TNAP inhibitor SBI-425 or vehicle to evaluate the feasibility of TNAP inhibition in vivo. Treatment with this inhibitor significantly reduced aortic calcification and cardiac hypertrophy, and extended lifespan over vehicle-treated controls, in the absence of secondary effects on the skeleton. This study shows that TNAP in the vasculature contributes to the pathology of MVC and that it is a druggable target.

Phosphatase high-throughput screening assay design and selection.

Phosphatases are a heterogeneous group of enzymes catalyzing dephosphorylation of diverse substrates ranging from small organic molecules to large phosphorylated multiprotein complexes. A wide variety of biochemical approaches for measuring phosphatase activity exists. Spectrophotometric methods utilizing artificial chromogenic, fluorogenic, and luminogenic substrates and taking advantage of the optical properties of dephosphorylated products are broadly used by research community. Another major assay type is based on quantitation of the second product of any phosphatase reactions, inorganic phosphate, using a variety of phosphate detection methods. Although, in theory, compatible with any phosphatase substrate, these assays often are unable to provide acceptable high-throughput screening adaptations of native phosphatase reactions. Conversely, phosphatase assays with artificial substrates frequently are incapable to mirror the intricacies of substrate binding and catalysis of the native reaction and, as a result, unable to deliver biologically relevant phosphatase modulators. Utilization of comprehensive phosphatase assay panels, employing honed biochemical assays and cell-based model systems, in conjunction with novel approaches for screening phosphatases may aid in identification of potent, selective, and biologically active phosphatase modulators.

High-throughput screening for protein tyrosine phosphatase activity modulators.

Reversible phosphorylation of proteins, principally on serine, threonine, or tyrosine residues, is central to the regulation of most aspects of eukaryotic cell function. Dysregulation of protein kinases and protein phosphatases is linked to numerous human diseases. Consequently, many efforts have been made to target these enzymes with small molecules in order to develop new therapeutic agents. While protein kinase inhibitors have been successfully brought to the market, the development of specific protein phosphatase inhibitors is still in its infancy. The largest and most diverse protein phosphatase superfamily in humans is comprised by the protein tyrosine phosphatases, a group of over 100 enzymes. Here, we describe high-throughput screening methods to search for protein tyrosine phosphatase activity modulators. We illustrate the implementation of relatively simple phosphatase assays, using generic absorbance- or fluorescence-based substrates, in 384- or 1536-well microtiter plates. We discuss steps to optimize HTS assay quality and performance, and describe several PTP screening methods on the basis of previously performed successful HTS campaigns. Finally, we discuss how to confirm, follow up, and prioritize hit compounds, and point out a number of common pitfalls that are encountered in this process.

New activity assays for ENPP1 with physiological substrates ATP and ADP.

Existing assays monitoring ENPP1 activity are either not physiologically relevant or not suitable for high-throughput screening (HTS). Here, we describe the development and implementation of two new ENPP1 activity assays that address these drawbacks. These assays employ physiological substrates of ENPP1, ATP and ADP. They rely on detection of inorganic phosphate using a special modification of the malachite green-molybdate colorimetric procedure that ensures stability of acid-labile compounds, such as the ones containing phosphodiester bonds. The pyrophosphate generated in ENPP1 reaction is converted to inorganic phosphate in the presence of inorganic phosphatase; whereas, omission of this coupling enzyme enables detection of the inorganic phosphate generated by ENPP1. These new ENPP1 assays were miniaturized into high-density microplate formats. With minimal requirement for ENPP1 enzyme, low micromolar phosphate detection sensitivity, and simple protocol involving three to four simple liquid handling steps, these robust assays are suitable for HTS.

A method for direct assessment of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) inhibitors in blood samples.

Tissue nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) is one of four human alkaline phosphatases (AP), a family of exocytic enzymes that catalyze hydrolysis of phospho-monoesters in bone, liver, kidney, and various other tissues. Overexpression of TNAP gives rise to excessive bone and soft tissue mineralization, including blood vessel calcification. Our prior screening campaigns have found several leads against this attractive therapeutic target using in vitro assay with a recombinant enzyme; these compounds were further optimized using medicinal chemistry approaches. To prioritize compounds for their use in animal models, we have designed and developed a biomarker assay for in situ detection of TNAP activity within human and mouse blood samples at physiological pH. This assay is suitable for screening compounds in 1,536-well plates using blood plasma from different mammalian species. The user may choose from two different substrates based on the need for greater assay simplicity or sensitivity.

Modulators of intestinal alkaline phosphatase.

Small molecule modulators of phosphatases can lead to clinically useful drugs and serve as invaluable tools to study functional roles of various phosphatases in vivo. Here, we describe lead discovery strategies for identification of inhibitors and activators of intestinal alkaline phosphatases. To identify isozyme-selective inhibitors and activators of the human and mouse intestinal alkaline phosphatases, ultrahigh throughput chemiluminescent assays, utilizing CDP-Star as a substrate, were developed for murine intestinal alkaline phosphatase (mIAP), human intestinal alkaline phosphatase (hIAP), human placental alkaline phosphatase (PLAP), and human tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) isozymes. Using these 1,536-well assays, concurrent HTS screens of the MLSMR library of 323,000 compounds were conducted for human and mouse IAP isozymes monitoring both inhibition and activation. This parallel screening approach led to identification of a novel inhibitory scaffold selective for murine intestinal alkaline phosphatase. SAR efforts based on parallel testing of analogs against different AP isozymes generated a potent inhibitor of the murine IAP with IC50 of 540 nM, at least 65-fold selectivity against human TNAP, and >185 selectivity against human PLAP.

TR-FRET-based high-throughput screening assay for identification of UBC13 inhibitors.

UBC13 is a noncanonical ubiquitin conjugating enzyme (E2) that has been implicated in a variety of cellular signaling processes due to its ability to catalyze formation of lysine 63-linked polyubiquitin chains on various substrates. In particular, UBC13 is required for signaling by a variety of receptors important in immune regulation, making it a candidate target for inflammatory diseases. UBC13 is also critical for double-strand DNA repair and thus a potential radiosensitizer and chemosensitizer target for oncology. The authors developed a high-throughput screening (HTS) assay for UBC13 based on the method of time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer (TR-FRET). The TR-FRET assay combines fluorochrome (Fl)-conjugated ubiquitin (fluorescence acceptor) with terbium (Tb)-conjugated ubiquitin (fluorescence donor), such that the assembly of mixed chains of Fl- and Tb-ubiquitin creates a robust TR-FRET signal. The authors defined conditions for optimized performance of the TR-FRET assay in both 384- and 1536-well formats. Chemical library screens (total 456 865 compounds) were conducted in high-throughput mode using various compound collections, affording superb Z' scores (typically >0.7) and thus validating the performance of the assays. Altogether, the HTS assays described here are suitable for large-scale, automated screening of chemical libraries in search of compounds with inhibitory activity against UBC13.

High-throughput screening of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase for identification of effectors with diverse modes of action.

Here we describe a protocol for the identification of effectors of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP). It is based on a highly sensitive method for detecting TNAP activity. After dephosphorylation by TNAP, a dioxetane-based substrate undergoes a series of chemical transformations resulting in light production. Light intensity serves as a quantitative measure of the velocity of the TNAP-catalyzed reaction in the steady state. This protocol includes guidelines for optimizing the assay and for high-throughput screening in multiwell plates. The assay is sensitive to the influence of diverse effectors of TNAP as long as the assay optimization steps are repeated for each new batch of the enzyme; full optimization is accomplished in under 2 d. Depending on the available equipment, 10,000-100,000 compounds can be screened in an 8-h period. This protocol provides a method of screening TNAP that is 1,000-fold more sensitive and 10-fold faster than a conventional colorimetric assay with p-nitrophenyl phosphate.

Engineering a leucine zipper-TRAIL homotrimer with improved cytotoxicity in tumor cells.

Successful cancer therapies aim to induce selective apoptosis in neoplastic cells. The current suboptimal efficiency and selectivity drugs have therapeutic limitations and induce concomitant side effects. Recently, novel cancer therapies based on the use of tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) have emerged. TRAIL, a key component of the natural antitumor immune response, selectively kills many tumor cell types. Earlier studies with recombinant TRAIL, however, revealed its many shortcomings including a short half-life, off-target toxicity, and existence of TRAIL-resistant tumor cells. We improved the efficacy of recombinant TRAIL by redesigning its structure and the expression and purification procedures. The result is a highly stable leucine zipper (LZ)-TRAIL chimera that is simple to produce and purify. This chimera functions as a trimer in a manner that is similar to natural TRAIL. The formulation of the recombinant LZ-TRAIL we have developed has displayed high specific activity in both cell-based assays in vitro and animal tests in vivo. Our results have shown that the half-life of LZ-TRAIL is improved and now exceeds 1 h in mice compared with a half-life of only minutes reported earlier for recombinant TRAIL. We have concluded that our LZ-TRAIL construct will serve as a foundation for a new generation of fully human LZ-TRAIL proteins suitable for use in preclinical and clinical studies and for effective combination therapies to overcome tumor resistance to TRAIL.

Discovery and validation of a series of aryl sulfonamides as selective inhibitors of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP).

We report the characterization and optimization of drug-like small molecule inhibitors of tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP), an enzyme critical for the regulation of extracellular matrix calcification during bone formation and growth. High-throughput screening (HTS) of a small molecule library led to the identification of arylsulfonamides as potent and selective inhibitors of TNAP. Critical structural requirements for activity were determined, and the compounds were subsequently profiled for in vitro activity and bioavailability parameters including metabolic stability and permeability. The plasma levels following subcutaneous administration of a member of the lead series in rat was determined, demonstrating the potential of these TNAP inhibitors as systemically active therapeutic agents to target various diseases involving soft tissue calcification. A representative member of the series was also characterized in mechanistic and kinetic studies.

New model for activation of yeast pyruvate decarboxylase by substrate consistent with the alternating sites mechanism: demonstration of the existence of two active forms of the enzyme.

Pyruvate decarboxylase from yeast (YPDC, EC 4.1.1.1) exhibits a marked lag phase in the progress curves of product (acetaldehyde) formation. The currently accepted kinetic model for YPDC predicts that, only upon binding of substrate in a regulatory site, a slow activation step converts inactive enzyme into the active form. This allosteric behavior gives rise to sigmoidal steady-state kinetics. The E477Q active site variant of YPDC exhibited hyperbolic initial rate curves at low pH, not consistent with the model. Progress curves of product formation by this variant were S-shaped, consistent with the presence of three interconverting conformations with distinct steady-state rates. Surprisingly, wild-type YPDC at pH < or =5.0 also possessed S-shaped progress curves, with the conformation corresponding to the middle steady state being the most active one. Reexamination of the activation by substrate of wild-type YPDC in the pH range of 4.5-6.5 revealed two characteristic transitions at all pH values. The values of steady-state rates are functions of both pH and substrate concentration, affecting whether the progress curve appears "normal" or S-shaped with an inflection point. The substrate dependence of the apparent rate constants suggested that the first transition corresponded to substrate binding in an active site and a subsequent step responsible for conversion to an asymmetric conformation. Consequently, the second enzyme state may report on "unregulated" enzyme, since the regulatory site does not participate in its generation. This enzyme state utilizes the alternating sites mechanism, resulting in the hyperbolic substrate dependence of initial rate. The second transition corresponds to binding a substrate molecule in the regulatory site and subsequent minor conformational adjustments. The third enzyme state corresponds to the allosterically regulated conformation, previously referred to as activated enzyme. The pH dependence of the Hill coefficient suggests a random binding of pyruvate in a regulatory and an active site of wild-type YPDC. Addition of pyruvamide or acetaldehyde to YPDC results in the appearance of additional conformations of the enzyme.

Yeast pyruvate decarboxylase tetramers can dissociate into dimers along two interfaces. Hybrids of low-activity D28A (or D28N) and E477Q variants, with substitution of adjacent active center acidic groups from different subunits, display restored activity.

The tetrameric enzyme yeast pyruvate decarboxylase (YPDC) has been known to dissociate into dimers at elevated pH values. However, the interface along which the dissociation occurs, as well as the fundamental kinetic properties of the resulting dimers, remains unknown. The active sites of YPDC are comprised of amino acid residues from two subunits, a property which we utilize to address the issue as to which dimer interface is cleaved under different conditions of dissociation. Hydroxide-induced dissociation of the active site D28A (or D28N) and E477Q variants, each at least 100 times less reactive than wild-type YPDC, followed by reassociation of D28A (or D28N) and E477Q variants led to a remarkable 35-50-fold increase in activity. This result is possible only if the hydroxide-induced dissociation results in a cleavage along the interface between two subunits so that residues D28 and E477 are now separated. Upon reassociation, one of the two active sites of the hybrid dimer will have both residues substituted, whereas the second one will be of the wild-type phenotype. In contrast to the hydroxide-induced dimers, the urea-induced dissociation recently proposed results in dissociation along dimer-dimer interfaces, without separating the active sites, and therefore, on reassociation, these dimers do not regain activity. The significance of the results is discussed in light of a recently proposed alternating sites mechanism for YPDC. A preparative ion-exchange method is reported for the separation and purification of hybrid enzymes.