Prevalence, genetic characteristics, and antimicrobial resistance of Clostridioides difficile isolates from horses in Korea.

OBJECTIVES: Clostridioides difficile is an etiological agent of enteric diseases in humans and animals. Animals are considered a potential reservoir due to the genetic and antimicrobial resistance similarities between human and animal C. difficile isolates. In this study, we evaluated the genetic characteristics and antimicrobial resistance profiles of C. difficile isolated from 942 fecal samples collected from horses in South Korea during 2019-2020. METHODS: The C. difficile isolates were tested for toxin genes including tcdA (A), tcdB (B), and cdtAB (CDT) and deletions of the tcdC gene by PCR. In addition, ribotyping, multilocus sequence typing, and antimicrobial susceptibility tests were performed. RESULTS: Twenty-three (2.4%) C. difficile isolates were associated with diarrhea in foals under 1 year old during the spring-summer period. Of these, 82.6% were toxigenic strains, determined to be A+B+CDT+ (52.1%) or A+B+CDT‒ (30.4%). All isolates were susceptible to metronidazole and vancomycin, and resistant to cefotaxime and gentamicin, and 76.2% were multidrug resistant (MDR). RT078/ST11/Clade 5 was the most common genotype (47.8%), which was also found in animals and humans worldwide. All RT078/ST11/Clade 5 strains were toxigenic and had deletions of the tcdC gene. About half of these strains were resistant to moxifloxacin, and 63.6% were MDR. CONCLUSIONS: C. difficile isolates in this study consisted mostly of toxigenic and MDR strains, and their genetic properties were highly similar to human C. difficile isolates. These results suggest high possibilities of zoonotic transmission and can provide knowledge for establishing strategies for the treatment and prevention of C. difficile infection.

A case of carboxyatractyloside intoxication by ingestion of the cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) in a Korean native cow.

A 19-month-old Korean native cow died the following day after consuming new silage. Grossly, the liver showed enlargement, redness, and haemorrhages in all the lobes. Additionally, many of the bur-shaped fruits of the cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium) were found in the gastric contents. The histological evaluation confirmed centrilobular hepatic necrosis. Additionally, carboxyatractyloside (CATR), a material fatal to animals found in the cocklebur, was detected in the gastric contents using high-performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry (HPLC-Q-TOF-MS). Based on the pathological findings and analytical confirmation, CATR intoxication was diagnosed. Therefore, careful feeding and elimination of the cocklebur is essential for minimising economic loss.

Characterisation of Pasteurella multocida isolates from pigs with pneumonia in Korea.

BACKGROUND: Pasteurella multocida is responsible for significant economic losses in pigs worldwide. In clinically diseased pigs, most P. multocida isolates are characterised as subspecies multocida, biovar 2 or 3 and capsular type A or D; however, there is little information regarding subspecies, biovars, and other capsular types of P. multocida isolates in Korea. Here, we provided information covering an extended time period regarding P. multocida in pigs with pneumonia in Korea using phenotypic and genotypic characterisations and data associated with the minimum inhibitory concentrations. RESULTS: The overall prevalence of P. multocida between 2008 and 2016 was 16.8% (240/1430), with 85% of the P. multocida isolates (204/240) coinfected with other respiratory pathogens. Of the 240 isolates, 166 were included in this study; all of these P. multocida isolates were characterised as subspecies multocida and the most prevalent phenotypes were represented by biovar 3 (68.7%; n = 114) and capsular type A (69.9%; n = 116). Additionally, three capsular type F isolates were identified, with this representing the first report of such isolates in Korea. All biovar 1 and 2 isolates were capsular types F and A, respectively. The virulence-associated gene distribution was variable; all capsular type A and D isolates harboured pmHAS and hsf-1, respectively (P < 0.001), with type F (biovar 1) significantly correlated with hsf-1 (P < 0.05) and pfhA (P < 0.01), biovar 2 highly associated with pfhA and pmHAS, and biovar 3 significantly correlated with hsf-1, pmHAS, and hgbB (P < 0.001), whereas biovar 13 was related only to hgbB (P < 0.05). The highest resistance rate was found to be to oxytetracycline (63.3%), followed by florfenicol (16.3%). CONCLUSIONS: P. multocida subspecies multocida, biovar 3, and capsular type A was the most prevalent isolate in this study, and our findings indicated the emergence of capsular type F in Korea. Moreover, prudent use of oxytetracycline and florfenicol is required because of the identified high resistance rates. Further studies are required for continuous monitoring of the antimicrobial resistance, prevalence, and epidemiological characterisation of P. multocida, and experimental infection models are needed to define the pathogenicity of capsular type F.

Necrotizing Enteritis Caused by Pharyngostomum cordatum Infection in a Stray Cat.

A stray female cat of unknown age, presenting bright red watery diarrhea, was submitted to the Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency for diagnosis. In the small intestines extracted from the necropsied cat, numerous white oval-shaped organisms were firmly embedded in the mucosa and there was thickening of intestinal wall. Histopathological analysis revealed severe necrotizing enteritis, together with atrophied intestinal villi, exfoliated enterocytes, and parasitic worms. Recovered worms were identified as Pharyngostomum cordatum by morphological observation and genetic analysis. Although P. cordatum is known to occur widely in Korea, this is the first clinical description of an infection by P. cordatum causing severe feline enteritis.

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A(H5N6) in Domestic Cats, South Korea.

In December 2016, highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) infection with systemic pathologic lesions was found in cats in South Korea. Genetic analyses indicated that the feline isolates were similar to HPAI H5N6 viruses isolated in chicken farms nearby. This finding highlights the need for monitoring of domestic mammals during HPAI outbreaks.

Chemically induced hepatotoxicity in human stem cell-induced hepatocytes compared with primary hepatocytes and HepG2.

Stem cell-induced hepatocytes (SC-iHeps) have been suggested as a valuable model for evaluating drug toxicology. Here, human-induced pluripotent stem cells (QIA7) and embryonic stem cells (WA01) were differentiated into hepatocytes, and the hepatotoxic effects of acetaminophen (AAP) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) were compared with primary hepatocytes (p-Heps) and HepG2. In a cytotoxicity assay, the IC50 of SC-iHeps was similar to that in p-Heps and HepG2 in the AAP groups but different from that in p-Heps of the AFB1 groups. In a multi-parameter assay, phenotypic changes in mitochondrial membrane potential, calcium influx and oxidative stress were similar between QIA7-iHeps and p-Heps following AAP and AFB1 treatment but relatively low in WA01-iHeps and HepG2. Most hepatic functional markers (hepatocyte-specific genes, albumin/urea secretion, and the CYP450 enzyme activity) were decreased in a dose-dependent manner following AAP and AFB1 treatment in SC-iHeps and p-Heps but not in HepG2. Regarding CYP450 inhibition, the cell viability of SC-iHeps and p-Heps was increased by ketoconazole, a CYP3A4 inhibitor. Collectively, SC-iHeps and p-Heps showed similar cytotoxicity and hepatocyte functional effects for AAP and AFB1 compared with HepG2. Therefore, SC-iHeps have phenotypic characteristics and sensitivity to cytotoxic chemicals that are more similar to p-Heps than to HepG2 cells.

Analysis of Insecticides in Dead Wild Birds in Korea from 2010 to 2013.

Wild birds are exposed to insecticides in a variety of ways, at different dose levels and via multiple routes, including ingestion of contaminated food items, and dermal, inhalation, preening, and embryonic exposure. Most poisoning by insecticides occurs as a result of misuse or accidental exposure, but intentional killing of unwanted animals also occurs. In this study, we investigated insecticides in the gastric contents of dead wild birds that were suspected to have died from insecticide poisoning based on necropsy. The wild birds were found dead in various regions and locations such as in mountains, and agricultural and urban areas. A total of 182 dead wild birds of 27 species were analyzed in this study, and insecticide residue levels were determined in 60.4% of the total samples analyzed. Monocrotophos and phosphamidon were the most common insecticides identified at rates of 50.0% and 30.7% of the insecticide-positive samples, respectively. Other insecticides identified in dead wild birds included organophosphorous, organochlorine and carbamate insecticides. However, there was limited evidence to conclusively establish the cause of death related to insecticides in this study. Nevertheless, considering the level of insecticide exposure, it is speculated that the exposure was mainly a result of accidental or intentional killing, and not from environmental residue.

Hepatic differentiation of human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells and adverse effects of arsanilic acid and acetaminophen during in vitro hepatic developmental stage.

In the present study, we differentiated hepatocyte-like cells (HLCs) from human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (AT-MSCs). The hepatic differentiation was confirmed by increases in hepatic proteins or genes, the cytochrome P450 (CYP) activities, albumin secretion, and glycogen storage. To determine the developmental toxic effect of arsanilic acid (Ars) and acetaminophen (AAP) on the hepatic development, the differentiating cells were treated with the test chemicals (below IC12.5) from day 4 to day 13. The enzymatic activities of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) did not significantly differ in response to Ars treatment. AAP treatment increased the activities of all enzymes in a dose-dependent manner, significantly at concentrations of 2.5 and 5 mM of AAP. On the expressions of hepatic genes for Ars, the expressions were significantly inhibited by more than 0.5 mM for Albumin (ALB), but only 2.5 mM for α-feto protein (AFP). In the AAP-treated group, the expressions of ALB and AFP were significantly decreased at the concentrations exceeding 0.625 mM. The activities of CYP3A4 were not changed by both treatments. The activities of CYP1A2 were increased by AAP, whereas it was decreased by Ars treatment. In conclusion, AAP could cause serious adverse effects during the hepatic development as compared to Ars.

Evaluation of changes induced by temperature, contact time, and surface in the efficacies of disinfectants against avian influenza virus.

Avian influenza viruses (AIV) are highly susceptible to all disinfectants because they are enveloped viruses. Disinfectants effective against AIV have optimum efficacies at temperatures above 20°C. Very few studies on effective disinfectants at low temperatures have been done. Disinfectants were investigated at 4 different temperatures (25, 4, 0, and -10°C) and 2 contact times (1 and 5 min) with suspension tests. Virucidal activity of the disinfectants was evaluated by carrier tests (wood and stainless steel) at 25 and -10°C. The concentration of each disinfectant for efficient disinfection within a short time (<1 min) at 25 and -10°C was also reestablished. The results from the suspension test indicated that low temperatures inhibited the virucidal efficacy of citric acid (CA) and CA + quaternary ammonium compounds (CA+ QAC) for 1 and 5 min, whereas the remaining disinfectants were effective, regardless of the short contact times and low temperatures. The carrier test results suggested that dried virus on wood was more difficult to inactivate compared with that on stainless steel. However, sodium dichloroisocyanurate and glutaraldehyde could inactivate AIV on both wood and stainless steel at -10°C. Citric acid-based agents could not sufficiently inactivate AIV at -10°C; however, the limitation due to low temperatures was overcome by adjusting disinfectant concentration. For a successful disinfection during winter, the disinfectants that could have short contact times with optimum efficacy against the target organism should be selected.

Epidemiological investigation of equine hindlimb ataxia with Setaria digitata in South Korea.

BACKGROUND: Since 2013, the number of requests for diagnosis for horses based on neurological symptoms has increased rapidly in South Korea. The affected horses have commonly exhibited symptoms of acute seasonal hindlimb ataxia. A previous study from 2015-2016 identified Setaria digitata as the causative agent. OBJECTIVES: This study is an epidemiological investigation to find out risk factors related to the rapid increase in hindlimb ataxia of horses due to aberrant parasites in South Korea. METHODS: An epidemiological investigation was conducted on 155 cohabiting horses in 41 horse ranches where the disease occurred. The surrounding environment was investigated at the disease-causing horse ranches (n = 41) and 20, randomly selected, non-infected ranches. RESULTS: Hindlimb ataxia was confirmed in nine cohabiting horses; this was presumed to be caused by ectopic parasitism. Environments that mosquitoes inhabit, such as paddy fields within 2 km and less than 0.5 km from a river, had the greatest association with disease occurrence. CONCLUSIONS: Most horse ranches in South Korea are situated in favorable environments for mosquitoes. Moreover, the number of mosquitoes in the country has increased since 2013 due to climate change. Additional research is required; however, these data show that it is necessary to establish guidelines for the use of anthelmintic agents based on local factors in South Korea and disinfection of the environment to prevent disease outbreaks.

O-Serogroups and Pathovirotypes of Escherichia coli Isolated from Post-Weaning Piglets Showing Diarrhoea and/or Oedema in South Korea.

This study aimed to determine the prevalence of several pathovirotypes and evaluate the association of haemolysis with the virotypes of pathogenic E. coli isolated from post-weaning piglets in South Korea from 2015 to 2019. We isolated 890 E. coli and tested for O-serogroups, virulence genes, haemolysis, and multilocus sequence typing. The predominant virotypes were STb:EAST1:AIDA-I, F18b:Stx2e:AIDA-I, F18:STa:STb:Stx2e, and eae:Paa in enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), ETEC/STEC, and enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), respectively. Regarding serogroups, O139, O149, O141, and O121 were mostly detected in F18:Stx2e:AIDA-I, F4:LT:STb:EAST1, F18:STa:STb, and F18:Stx2e:EAST1, respectively. There was a significant change in the frequency of the O141:F18ac:STa:STb (an increase from 1.6% to 10.1%) and O139:F18ab:Stx2e:AIDA-I (a decrease from 13.0% to 5.3%) virotypes in ETEC and STEC, respectively, from 2015 to 2019. The O141:F18ac:STa:STb virotype was mostly detected in the central area and was spreading to the southern area. The odds ratios between haemolysis and virotypes were 11.0, 6.25, and 8.57 in F18:STa:STb, F18:Stx2e:AIDA-I, and F4:LT:STb:EAST1, respectively. Our findings provide insights regarding the recent prevalence of pathogenic E. coli in South Korea and could be used for the development of vaccines for E. coli responsible for PWD and ED in post-weaning piglets.

Setaria digitata was the main cause of equine neurological ataxia in Korea: 50 cases (2015-2016).

This study was performed to examine and clarify the cause of hindlimb ataxia and neuropathy seen in the South Korean horse population. Fifty horses diagnosed with hindlimb ataxia and neuropathy were referred for this study. Neurological examination was performed on 47 horses while necropsy was performed in all 50 animals. The occurrence of neurological diseases increased rapidly in the summer and 47 out of 50 horses were referred after the end of July. The incidence of neurological diseases started from the southern part of Korea in July and proceeded northward in August and September. Although there was no correlation with age, Thoroughbred and Warmblood horses showed a higher incidence rate than Halla and Jeju horses. The incidence rate was 5 times higher in geldings than in mares and stallions. Of the 20 cases, 16 were diagnosed with eosinophilic meningoencephalomyelitis in 2015. The most common lesions observed in 2016 were parasitic meningoencephalomyelitis (10 cases, 33%) and eosinophilic meningomyelitis (7 cases, 23%). Histopathological analysis of the brain and spinal cord revealed nematodes of approximately 100-200 µm in diameter, microcavitation and infiltrates of eosinophils, and brown pigmented macrophage infiltrates. The nematodes were identified as Setaria digitata via DNA sequencing, performed subsequent to polymerase chain reaction using DNA isolated from formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue sections of the spinal cord. These results show that aberrant migration of Setaria digitata larva in the brain and spinal cord was a major cause for neurological signs in horses.

Evaluation of the Variability of the ORF34, ORF68, and MLST Genes in EHV-1 from South Korea.

Equine herpesvirus-1 (EHV-1) is an important pathogen in horses. It affects horses worldwide and causes substantial economic losses. In this study, for the first time, we characterized EHV-1 isolates from South Korea at the molecular level. We then aimed to determine the genetic divergences of these isolates by comparing them to sequences in databases. In total, 338 horse samples were collected, and 12 EHV-1 were isolated. We performed ORF30, ORF33, ORF68, and ORF34 genetic analysis and carried out multi-locus sequence typing (MLST) of 12 isolated EHV-1. All isolated viruses were confirmed as non-neuropathogenic type, showing N752 of ORF30 and highly conserved ORF33 (99.7-100%). Isolates were unclassified using ORF68 analysis because of a 118 bp deletion in nucleotide sequence 701-818. Seven EHV-1 isolates (16Q4, 19R166-1, 19R166-6, 19/10/15-2, 19/10/15-4, 19/10/18-2, 19/10/22-1) belonged to group 1, clade 10, based on ORF34 and MLST analysis. The remaining 5 EHV-1 isolates (15Q25-1, 15D59, 16Q5, 16Q40, 18D99) belonged to group 7, clade 6, based on ORF34 and MLST analysis.

Molecular subtyping and antimicrobial susceptibility of Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis isolates from clinically diseased pigs.

BACKGROUND: Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis (SDSE) acts as an etiological agent for lameness, neurological signs, and high mortality in pigs. Despite its importance in pig industries and zoonotic potential, little is known about the effects of this pathogen. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to determine the molecular characteristics and antimicrobial resistance of SDSE strains isolated from diseased pigs. METHODS: A total 11 SDSE isolates were obtained from diseased pigs. Bacterial identification, PCR for virulence genes, emm typing, and antimicrobial resistance genes, multilocus sequence typing, and antimicrobial susceptibility test were performed. RESULTS: Nine isolates were from piglets, and 8 showed lameness, sudden death, or neurological signs. The isolates were PCR-positive for sla (100%), sagA (100%), and scpA (45.5%), and only 1 isolate amplified the emm gene (stL2764). Eight different sequence types were detected, categorized into 2 clonal complexes and 4 singletons. All the isolates in this study were included in a small cluster, which also contained other strains derived from humans and horses. The minimum inhibitory concentrations for the tested beta-lactams were low, while those for macrolides, tetracyclines, and fluoroquinolones were relatively high. PCR analysis of the macrolide and tetracycline resistance genes demonstrated that the isolates carried erm(B) (18.2%, n = 2), mef(A/E) (9.1%, n = 1), tet(M) (18.2%, n = 2), and tet(O) (90.2%, n = 10). Two isolates presented a mutation in parC, which is associated with fluoroquinolone resistance. CONCLUSION: This study provided insight into swine-derived SDSE, as it is related to veterinary medicine, and elucidated its zoonotic potential, in the context of molecular epidemiology and antimicrobial resistance in public health.

Genetic characterization of canine parvovirus type 2c from domestic dogs in Korea.

Canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) is an aetiological agent that causes acute haemorrhagic enteritis and fatal myocarditis in dogs. Since CPV-2 first emerged in the late 1970s, its rapid evolution has resulted in three antigenic variants: CPV-2a, CPV-2b and CPV-2c. Here, we report, for the first time in Korea, two cases of CPV-2c infection in two dogs with severe diarrhoea. The complete open reading frame (4,269nt) of CPV-2, encoding both non-structural (NS) and structural (VP) proteins, was sequenced. Based on the amino acid Gln present at residue 426 of the VP2 gene, these strains were typed as CPV-2c, and were named Korea CPV-2c_1 and Korea CPV-2c_2. These strains shared 99.48% reciprocal nucleotide sequence identity and had the highest nucleotide identity (99.77%-99.34%) with Asian CPV strains isolated in China, Italy (found in a dog imported from Thailand), and Vietnam from 2013 to 2017. Phylogenetic analysis based on the non-structural (NS1) and capsid (VP2) genes revealed that Korean CPV-2c strains clustered closely to Asian CPV strains, and separately from strains isolated in Europe, South America and North America. Amino acid changes never reported before were observed in NS1 (Thr70Pro, Cys287Tyr), VP1 (Lys17Arg, Phe33Leu) and VP2 (Gln365His, Ala516Val). Additional observed mutations, including Phe267Tyr, Tyr324Ile and Gln370Arg, have been previously reported in the recent CPV-2c strains with Asian origins. These results suggest that the Korean CPV-2c strains were potentially introduced via neighbouring Asian countries.

Differential detection of porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus genotypes by a fluorescence melting curve analysis using peptide nucleic acid probe-mediated one-step real-time RT-PCR.

Peptide nucleic acids (PNAs), artificially synthesized DNA analogues, hybridize strongly with DNA and are useful for fluorescence melting curve analyses (FMCA) based on the thermal denaturation of the probe-target duplex. In this study, we developed a PNA-based one-step real-time RT-PCR assay for the differential and qualitative detection of the porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus genotypes PRRSV1 and PRRSV2. The specificity of the assay was analyzed in silico using previously reported primers and probes and was subsequently verified using Korean PRRSV panels and clinical samples. Seven clinical samples showing low curves with high Ct values were confirmed as negative by FMCA. The sensitivities of one-step real-time PCR for PRRSV1 and PRRSV2 were 15 and 11 copies, respectively, and the results were in 100% agreement with those of conventional RT-PCR combined with nested PCR using clinical samples. Therefore, the assay is highly specific for the detection of current PRRSV1 and PRRSV2 without non-specific amplification by FMCA.

Co-infection of Dirofilaria immitis and Japanese encephalitis virus in a spotted seal (Phoca largha) in the Republic of Korea.

A 10-year-old male spotted seal presented with loss of appetite and decreased activity. Grossly, the internal organs revealed several filarial nematodes in the right ventricle of the heart and the pulmonary vessels. Histopathological examination of the brain revealed moderate nonsuppurative meningoencephalitis with glial nodules and neuronophagia. Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) of genotype I was isolated from the brain. All nematodes were identified as Dirofilaria immitis. This is the first clinical case of co-infection with D. immitis and JEV in a seal, suggesting that the seal, may be a dead-end host, like the human and horse, for JEV.

Multilocus genotyping and risk factor analysis of Giardia duodenalis in dogs in Korea.

Giardia duodenalis (syn. G. intestinalis, G. lamblia), a protozoan parasite that infects most mammals (including humans), has recently been classified into eight different groups/assemblages (A to H) based on host range and genetic characteristics. Assemblages A and B have been reported in humans and in many other animals, including dogs. This study analyzed Giardia infections, implementing multilocus genotyping, including the 18S rRNA, gdh, and ß-giardin genes, in sheltered, companion, and special-purpose dogs throughout Korea. Of 640 dog stool samples, 99 (15.5%) were G. duodenalis-positive; this prevalence was similar to that previously reported in Korean calves. In addition, the prevalence was significantly higher in the southern region, and lower in non-sheltered dogs, older dogs, and in the autumn season. Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all G. duodenalis-positive samples belonged to assemblages C and D. Although no G. duodenalis assemblages A and B (mainly found in humans) were identified in this study, assemblage C was detected in the main types of dogs in contact with humans. Assemblage C, thought to be dog-specific, was recently identified in humans. As Giardia (including zoonotic assemblages) is distributed throughout Korea, dog living environments and the potential for dog-human transmission should be monitored.

Pathologic and molecular characterization of Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis infection in neonatal piglets.

Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis (SDSE) is an emerging pathogen in animals and humans. Herein, we describe two clinical swine cases of SDSE infection presenting with lameness, neurological signs, or sudden death. Pathological examination indicated suppurative arthritis, encephalitis, and multifocal abscesses in kidney and heart. The ß-hemolytic colonies obtained from joint samples of each case were identified as SDSE. The two isolates had low minimum inhibitory concentrations for ß-lactams, and they presented the same virulence gene profile (slo-/sagA＋/pSTKP8＋). Molecular analysis by multilocus sequence typing identified the SDSE isolates from cases 1 and 2 as sequence types 315 and 252, respectively.

The seroprevalence of Japanese encephalitis virus in goats raised in Korea.

Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) causes a mosquitoborne viral zoonosis that is becoming increasingly important to public health in east and south Asia. Although JEV is primarily associated with reproductive failure in swine, JEV infection can cause fever and headache in humans and is associated with aseptic meningitis and encephalitis. The exact mode of transmission, including host range and possible source of viral amplification within livestock, is still not completely clear. This study consisted of a serological survey of JEV infection in goats. A total of 804 goat serum samples were collected from 144 farms in Korea between May 2005 and May 2006. The incidence of positive cases was 12.1% (97 out of 804 goats). The seroprevalence of JEV infection in the 144 farms screened was 31.3% (45/144), indicating that JEV infection is frequent in goat farms in Korea. In addition, three districts of Korea (mainly in the southern region) had a higher seroprevalence of JEV compared to other areas. The results suggest that goats could be monitored epidemiologically as a sentinel animal for JEV transmission in Korea.