The genomic history of the Aegean palatial civilizations.

The Cycladic, the Minoan, and the Helladic (Mycenaean) cultures define the Bronze Age (BA) of Greece. Urbanism, complex social structures, craft and agricultural specialization, and the earliest forms of writing characterize this iconic period. We sequenced six Early to Middle BA whole genomes, along with 11 mitochondrial genomes, sampled from the three BA cultures of the Aegean Sea. The Early BA (EBA) genomes are homogeneous and derive most of their ancestry from Neolithic Aegeans, contrary to earlier hypotheses that the Neolithic-EBA cultural transition was due to massive population turnover. EBA Aegeans were shaped by relatively small-scale migration from East of the Aegean, as evidenced by the Caucasus-related ancestry also detected in Anatolians. In contrast, Middle BA (MBA) individuals of northern Greece differ from EBA populations in showing ∼50% Pontic-Caspian Steppe-related ancestry, dated at ca. 2,600-2,000 BCE. Such gene flow events during the MBA contributed toward shaping present-day Greek genomes.

100 ancient genomes show repeated population turnovers in Neolithic Denmark.

Major migration events in Holocene Eurasia have been characterized genetically at broad regional scales1-4. However, insights into the population dynamics in the contact zones are hampered by a lack of ancient genomic data sampled at high spatiotemporal resolution5-7. Here, to address this, we analysed shotgun-sequenced genomes from 100 skeletons spanning 7,300 years of the Mesolithic period, Neolithic period and Early Bronze Age in Denmark and integrated these with proxies for diet (13C and 15N content), mobility (87Sr/86Sr ratio) and vegetation cover (pollen). We observe that Danish Mesolithic individuals of the Maglemose, Kongemose and Ertebølle cultures form a distinct genetic cluster related to other Western European hunter-gatherers. Despite shifts in material culture they displayed genetic homogeneity from around 10,500 to 5,900 calibrated years before present, when Neolithic farmers with Anatolian-derived ancestry arrived. Although the Neolithic transition was delayed by more than a millennium relative to Central Europe, it was very abrupt and resulted in a population turnover with limited genetic contribution from local hunter-gatherers. The succeeding Neolithic population, associated with the Funnel Beaker culture, persisted for only about 1,000 years before immigrants with eastern Steppe-derived ancestry arrived. This second and equally rapid population replacement gave rise to the Single Grave culture with an ancestry profile more similar to present-day Danes. In our multiproxy dataset, these major demographic events are manifested as parallel shifts in genotype, phenotype, diet and land use.

Population genomics of post-glacial western Eurasia.

Western Eurasia witnessed several large-scale human migrations during the Holocene1-5. Here, to investigate the cross-continental effects of these migrations, we shotgun-sequenced 317 genomes-mainly from the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods-from across northern and western Eurasia. These were imputed alongside published data to obtain diploid genotypes from more than 1,600 ancient humans. Our analyses revealed a 'great divide' genomic boundary extending from the Black Sea to the Baltic. Mesolithic hunter-gatherers were highly genetically differentiated east and west of this zone, and the effect of the neolithization was equally disparate. Large-scale ancestry shifts occurred in the west as farming was introduced, including near-total replacement of hunter-gatherers in many areas, whereas no substantial ancestry shifts happened east of the zone during the same period. Similarly, relatedness decreased in the west from the Neolithic transition onwards, whereas, east of the Urals, relatedness remained high until around 4,000 BP, consistent with the persistence of localized groups of hunter-gatherers. The boundary dissolved when Yamnaya-related ancestry spread across western Eurasia around 5,000 BP, resulting in a second major turnover that reached most parts of Europe within a 1,000-year span. The genetic origin and fate of the Yamnaya have remained elusive, but we show that hunter-gatherers from the Middle Don region contributed ancestry to them. Yamnaya groups later admixed with individuals associated with the Globular Amphora culture before expanding into Europe. Similar turnovers occurred in western Siberia, where we report new genomic data from a 'Neolithic steppe' cline spanning the Siberian forest steppe to Lake Baikal. These prehistoric migrations had profound and lasting effects on the genetic diversity of Eurasian populations.

Mapache: a flexible pipeline to map ancient DNA.

SUMMARY: We introduce mapache, a flexible, robust and scalable pipeline to map, quantify and impute ancient and present-day DNA in a reproducible way. Mapache is implemented in the workflow manager Snakemake and is optimized for low-space consumption, allowing to efficiently (re)map large datasets-such as reference panels and multiple extracts and libraries per sample - to one or several genomes. Mapache can easily be customized or combined with other Snakemake tools. AVAILABILITY AND IMPLEMENTATION: Mapache is freely available on GitHub (https://github.com/sneuensc/mapache). An extensive manual is provided at https://github.com/sneuensc/mapache/wiki. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Assessing the impact of post-mortem damage and contamination on imputation performance in ancient DNA.

Low-coverage imputation is becoming ever more present in ancient DNA (aDNA) studies. Imputation pipelines commonly used for present-day genomes have been shown to yield accurate results when applied to ancient genomes. However, post-mortem damage (PMD), in the form of C-to-T substitutions at the reads termini, and contamination with DNA from closely related species can potentially affect imputation performance in aDNA. In this study, we evaluated imputation performance (i) when using a genotype caller designed for aDNA, ATLAS, compared to bcftools, and (ii) when contamination is present. We evaluated imputation performance with principal component analyses and by calculating imputation error rates. With a particular focus on differently imputed sites, we found that using ATLAS prior to imputation substantially improved imputed genotypes for a very damaged ancient genome (42% PMD). Trimming the ends of the sequencing reads led to similar improvements in imputation accuracy. For the remaining genomes, ATLAS brought limited gains. Finally, to examine the effect of contamination on imputation, we added various amounts of reads from two present-day genomes to a previously downsampled high-coverage ancient genome. We observed that imputation accuracy drastically decreased for contamination rates above 5%. In conclusion, we recommend (i) accounting for PMD by either trimming sequencing reads or using a genotype caller such as ATLAS before imputing highly damaged genomes and (ii) only imputing genomes containing up to 5% of contamination.

Imputation of low-coverage sequencing data from 150,119 UK Biobank genomes.

The release of 150,119 UK Biobank sequences represents an unprecedented opportunity as a reference panel to impute low-coverage whole-genome sequencing data with high accuracy but current methods cannot cope with the size of the data. Here we introduce GLIMPSE2, a low-coverage whole-genome sequencing imputation method that scales sublinearly in both the number of samples and markers, achieving efficient whole-genome imputation from the UK Biobank reference panel while retaining high accuracy for ancient and modern genomes, particularly at rare variants and for very low-coverage samples.

Imputation of ancient human genomes.

Due to postmortem DNA degradation and microbial colonization, most ancient genomes have low depth of coverage, hindering genotype calling. Genotype imputation can improve genotyping accuracy for low-coverage genomes. However, it is unknown how accurate ancient DNA imputation is and whether imputation introduces bias to downstream analyses. Here we re-sequence an ancient trio (mother, father, son) and downsample and impute a total of 43 ancient genomes, including 42 high-coverage (above 10x) genomes. We assess imputation accuracy across ancestries, time, depth of coverage, and sequencing technology. We find that ancient and modern DNA imputation accuracies are comparable. When downsampled at 1x, 36 of the 42 genomes are imputed with low error rates (below 5%) while African genomes have higher error rates. We validate imputation and phasing results using the ancient trio data and an orthogonal approach based on Mendel's rules of inheritance. We further compare the downstream analysis results between imputed and high-coverage genomes, notably principal component analysis, genetic clustering, and runs of homozygosity, observing similar results starting from 0.5x coverage, except for the African genomes. These results suggest that, for most populations and depths of coverage as low as 0.5x, imputation is a reliable method that can improve ancient DNA studies.