Brain-Computer Interfaces for Communication in Patients with Disorders of Consciousness: A Gap Analysis and Scientific Roadmap.

BACKGROUND: We developed a gap analysis that examines the role of brain-computer interfaces (BCI) in patients with disorders of consciousness (DoC), focusing on their assessment, establishment of communication, and engagement with their environment. METHODS: The Curing Coma Campaign convened a Coma Science work group that included 16 clinicians and neuroscientists with expertise in DoC. The work group met online biweekly and performed a gap analysis of the primary question. RESULTS: We outline a roadmap for assessing BCI readiness in patients with DoC and for advancing the use of BCI devices in patients with DoC. Additionally, we discuss preliminary studies that inform development of BCI solutions for communication and assessment of readiness for use of BCIs in DoC study participants. Special emphasis is placed on the challenges posed by the complex pathophysiologies caused by heterogeneous brain injuries and their impact on neuronal signaling. The differences between one-way and two-way communication are specifically considered. Possible implanted and noninvasive BCI solutions for acute and chronic DoC in adult and pediatric populations are also addressed. CONCLUSIONS: We identify clinical and technical gaps hindering the use of BCI in patients with DoC in each of these contexts and provide a roadmap for research aimed at improving communication for adults and children with DoC, spanning the clinical spectrum from intensive care unit to chronic care.

Perception of second- and third-order orientation signals and their interactions.

Orientation signals, which are crucial to many aspects of visual function, are more complex and varied in the natural world than in the stimuli typically used for laboratory investigation. Gratings and lines have a single orientation, but in natural stimuli, local features have multiple orientations, and multiple orientations can occur even at the same location. Moreover, orientation cues can arise not only from pairwise spatial correlations, but from higher-order ones as well. To investigate these orientation cues and how they interact, we examined segmentation performance for visual textures in which the strengths of different kinds of orientation cues were varied independently, while controlling potential confounds such as differences in luminance statistics. Second-order cues (the kind present in gratings) at different orientations are largely processed independently: There is no cancellation of positive and negative signals at orientations that differ by 45°. Third-order orientation cues are readily detected and interact only minimally with second-order cues. However, they combine across orientations in a different way: Positive and negative signals largely cancel if the orientations differ by 90°. Two additional elements are superimposed on this picture. First, corners play a special role. When second-order orientation cues combine to produce corners, they provide a stronger signal for texture segregation than can be accounted for by their individual effects. Second, while the object versus background distinction does not influence processing of second-order orientation cues, this distinction influences the processing of third-order orientation cues.

Phase-Amplitude Coupling in Spontaneous Mouse Behavior.

The level of activity of many animals including humans rises and falls with a period of ~ 24 hours. The intrinsic biological oscillator that gives rise to this circadian oscillation is driven by a molecular feedback loop with an approximately 24 hour cycle period and is influenced by the environment, most notably the light:dark cycle. In addition to the circadian oscillations, behavior of many animals is influenced by multiple oscillations occurring at faster-ultradian-time scales. These ultradian oscillations are also thought to be driven by feedback loops. While many studies have focused on identifying such ultradian oscillations, less is known about how the ultradian behavioral oscillations interact with each other and with the circadian oscillation. Decoding the coupling among the various physiological oscillators may be important for understanding how they conspire together to regulate the normal activity levels, as well in disease states in which such rhythmic fluctuations in behavior may be disrupted. Here, we use a wavelet-based cross-frequency analysis to show that different oscillations identified in spontaneous mouse behavior are coupled such that the amplitude of oscillations occurring at higher frequencies are modulated by the phase of the slower oscillations. The patterns of these interactions are different among different individuals. Yet this variability is not random. Differences in the pattern of interactions are confined to a low dimensional subspace where different patterns of interactions form clusters. These clusters expose the differences among individuals-males and females are preferentially segregated into different clusters. These sex-specific features of spontaneous behavior were not apparent in the spectra. Thus, our methodology reveals novel aspects of the structure of spontaneous animal behavior that are not observable using conventional methodology.

Local changes in network structure contribute to late communication recovery after severe brain injury.

Spontaneous recovery of brain function after severe brain injury may evolve over a long time period and is likely to involve both structural and functional reorganization of brain networks. We longitudinally tracked the recovery of communication in a patient with severe brain injury using multimodal brain imaging techniques and quantitative behavioral assessments measured at the bedside over a period of 2 years and 9 months (21 months after initial injury). Structural diffusion tensor imaging revealed changes in brain structure across interhemispheric connections and in local brain regions that support language and visuomotor function. These findings correlated with functional brain imaging using functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography, which demonstrated increased language network recruitment in response to natural speech stimuli, graded increases in interhemispheric interactions of language-related frontal cortices, and increased cerebral metabolic activity in the language-dominant hemisphere. In addition, electrophysiological studies showed recovery of synchronization of sleep spindling activity. The observed changes suggest a specific mechanism for late recovery of communication after severe brain injury and provide support for the potential of activity-dependent structural and functional remodeling over long time periods.

A perceptual space of local image statistics.

Local image statistics are important for visual analysis of textures, surfaces, and form. There are many kinds of local statistics, including those that capture luminance distributions, spatial contrast, oriented segments, and corners. While sensitivity to each of these kinds of statistics have been well-studied, much less is known about visual processing when multiple kinds of statistics are relevant, in large part because the dimensionality of the problem is high and different kinds of statistics interact. To approach this problem, we focused on binary images on a square lattice - a reduced set of stimuli which nevertheless taps many kinds of local statistics. In this 10-parameter space, we determined psychophysical thresholds to each kind of statistic (16 observers) and all of their pairwise combinations (4 observers). Sensitivities and isodiscrimination contours were consistent across observers. Isodiscrimination contours were elliptical, implying a quadratic interaction rule, which in turn determined ellipsoidal isodiscrimination surfaces in the full 10-dimensional space, and made predictions for sensitivities to complex combinations of statistics. These predictions, including the prediction of a combination of statistics that was metameric to random, were verified experimentally. Finally, check size had only a mild effect on sensitivities over the range from 2.8 to 14min, but sensitivities to second- and higher-order statistics was substantially lower at 1.4min. In sum, local image statistics form a perceptual space that is highly stereotyped across observers, in which different kinds of statistics interact according to simple rules.