Gene regulatory and metabolic adaptation processes of Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL12T during oxygen depletion.

Metabolic flexibility is the key to the ecological success of the marine Roseobacter clade bacteria. We investigated the metabolic adaptation and the underlying changes in gene expression of Dinoroseobacter shibae DFL12(T) to anoxic life by a combination of metabolome, proteome, and transcriptome analyses. Time-resolved studies during continuous oxygen depletion were performed in a chemostat using nitrate as the terminal electron acceptor. Formation of the denitrification machinery was found enhanced on the transcriptional and proteome level, indicating that D. shibae DFL12(T) established nitrate respiration to compensate for the depletion of the electron acceptor oxygen. In parallel, arginine fermentation was induced. During the transition state, growth and ATP concentration were found to be reduced, as reflected by a decrease of A578 values and viable cell counts. In parallel, the central metabolism, including gluconeogenesis, protein biosynthesis, and purine/pyrimidine synthesis was found transiently reduced in agreement with the decreased demand for cellular building blocks. Surprisingly, an accumulation of poly-3-hydroxybutanoate was observed during prolonged incubation under anoxic conditions. One possible explanation is the storage of accumulated metabolites and the regeneration of NADP(+) from NADPH during poly-3-hydroxybutanoate synthesis (NADPH sink). Although D. shibae DFL12(T) was cultivated in the dark, biosynthesis of bacteriochlorophyll was increased, possibly to prepare for additional energy generation via aerobic anoxygenic photophosphorylation. Overall, oxygen depletion led to a metabolic crisis with partly blocked pathways and the accumulation of metabolites. In response, major energy-consuming processes were reduced until the alternative respiratory denitrification machinery was operative.

Comprehensive molecular, genomic and phenotypic analysis of a major clone of Enterococcus faecalis MLST ST40.

BACKGROUND: Enterococcus faecalis is a multifaceted microorganism known to act as a beneficial intestinal commensal bacterium. It is also a dreaded nosocomial pathogen causing life-threatening infections in hospitalised patients. Isolates of a distinct MLST type ST40 represent the most frequent strain type of this species, distributed worldwide and originating from various sources (animal, human, environmental) and different conditions (colonisation/infection). Since enterococci are known to be highly recombinogenic we determined to analyse the microevolution and niche adaptation of this highly distributed clonal type. RESULTS: We compared a set of 42 ST40 isolates by assessing key molecular determinants, performing whole genome sequencing (WGS) and a number of phenotypic assays including resistance profiling, formation of biofilm and utilisation of carbon sources. We generated the first circular closed reference genome of an E. faecalis isolate D32 of animal origin and compared it with the genomes of other reference strains. D32 was used as a template for detailed WGS comparisons of high-quality draft genomes of 14 ST40 isolates. Genomic and phylogenetic analyses suggest a high level of similarity regarding the core genome, also demonstrated by similar carbon utilisation patterns. Distribution of known and putative virulence-associated genes did not differentiate between ST40 strains from a commensal and clinical background or an animal or human source. Further analyses of mobile genetic elements (MGE) revealed genomic diversity owed to: (1) a modularly structured pathogenicity island; (2) a site-specifically integrated and previously unknown genomic island of 138 kb in two strains putatively involved in exopolysaccharide synthesis; and (3) isolate-specific plasmid and phage patterns. Moreover, we used different cell-biological and animal experiments to compare the isolate D32 with a closely related ST40 endocarditis isolate whose draft genome sequence was also generated. D32 generally showed a greater capacity of adherence to human cell lines and an increased pathogenic potential in various animal models in combination with an even faster growth in vivo (not in vitro). CONCLUSION: Molecular, genomic and phenotypic analysis of representative isolates of a major clone of E. faecalis MLST ST40 revealed new insights into the microbiology of a commensal bacterium which can turn into a conditional pathogen.

Structure and function of a short LOV protein from the marine phototrophic bacterium Dinoroseobacter shibae.

BACKGROUND: Light, oxygen, voltage (LOV) domains are widely distributed in plants, algae, fungi, bacteria, and represent the photo-responsive domains of various blue-light photoreceptor proteins. Their photocycle involves the blue-light triggered adduct formation between the C(4a) atom of a non-covalently bound flavin chromophore and the sulfur atom of a conserved cysteine in the LOV sensor domain. LOV proteins show considerable variation in the structure of N- and C-terminal elements which flank the LOV core domain, as well as in the lifetime of the adduct state. RESULTS: Here, we report the photochemical, structural and functional characterization of DsLOV, a LOV protein from the photoheterotrophic marine α-proteobacterium Dinoroseobacter shibae which exhibits an average adduct state lifetime of 9.6 s at 20°C, and thus represents the fastest reverting bacterial LOV protein reported so far. Mutational analysis in D. shibae revealed a unique role of DsLOV in controlling the induction of photopigment synthesis in the absence of blue-light. The dark state crystal structure of DsLOV determined at 1.5 Å resolution reveals a conserved core domain with an extended N-terminal cap. The dimer interface in the crystal structure forms a unique network of hydrogen bonds involving residues of the N-terminus and the ß-scaffold of the core domain. The structure of photoexcited DsLOV suggests increased flexibility in the N-cap region and a significant shift in the Cα backbone of ß strands in the N- and C-terminal ends of the LOV core domain. CONCLUSIONS: The results presented here cover the characterization of the unusual short LOV protein DsLOV from Dinoroseobacter shibae including its regulatory function, extremely fast dark recovery and an N-terminus mediated dimer interface. Due to its unique photophysical, structural and regulatory properties, DsLOV might thus serve as an alternative model system for studying light perception by LOV proteins and physiological responses in bacteria.

Transposon mutagenesis identified chromosomal and plasmid genes essential for adaptation of the marine bacterium Dinoroseobacter shibae to anaerobic conditions.

Anaerobic growth and survival are integral parts of the life cycle of many marine bacteria. To identify genes essential for the anoxic life of Dinoroseobacter shibae, a transposon library was screened for strains impaired in anaerobic denitrifying growth. Transposon insertions in 35 chromosomal and 18 plasmid genes were detected. The essential contribution of plasmid genes to anaerobic growth was confirmed with plasmid-cured D. shibae strains. A combined transcriptome and proteome approach identified oxygen tension-regulated genes. Transposon insertion sites of a total of 1,527 mutants without an anaerobic growth phenotype were determined to identify anaerobically induced but not essential genes. A surprisingly small overlap of only three genes (napA, phaA, and the Na(+)/Pi antiporter gene Dshi_0543) between anaerobically essential and induced genes was found. Interestingly, transposon mutations in genes involved in dissimilatory and assimilatory nitrate reduction (napA, nasA) and corresponding cofactor biosynthesis (genomic moaB, moeB, and dsbC and plasmid-carried dsbD and ccmH) were found to cause anaerobic growth defects. In contrast, mutation of anaerobically induced genes encoding proteins required for the later denitrification steps (nirS, nirJ, nosD), dimethyl sulfoxide reduction (dmsA1), and fermentation (pdhB1, arcA, aceE, pta, acs) did not result in decreased anaerobic growth under the conditions tested. Additional essential components (ferredoxin, cccA) of the anaerobic electron transfer chain and central metabolism (pdhB) were identified. Another surprise was the importance of sodium gradient-dependent membrane processes and genomic rearrangements via viruses, transposons, and insertion sequence elements for anaerobic growth. These processes and the observed contributions of cell envelope restructuring (lysM, mipA, fadK), C4-dicarboxylate transport (dctM1, dctM3), and protease functions to anaerobic growth require further investigation to unravel the novel underlying adaptation strategies.

Interaction between extracellular lipase LipA and the polysaccharide alginate of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

BACKGROUND: As an opportunistic human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa is able to cause acute and chronic infections. The biofilm mode of life significantly contributes to the growth and persistence of P. aeruginosa during an infection process and mediates the pathogenicity of the bacterium. Within a biofilm mucoid strains of P. aeruginosa simultaneously produce and secrete several hydrolytic enzymes and the extracellular polysaccharide alginate. The focus of the current study was the interaction between extracellular lipase LipA and alginate, which may be physiologically relevant in biofilms of mucoid P. aeruginosa. RESULTS: Fluorescence microscopy of mucoid P. aeruginosa biofilms were performed using fluorogenic lipase substrates. It showed a localization of the extracellular enzyme near the cells. A microtiter plate-based binding assay revealed that the polyanion alginate is able to bind LipA. A molecular modeling approach showed that this binding is structurally based on electrostatic interactions between negatively charged residues of alginate and positively charged amino acids of the protein localized opposite of the catalytic centre. Moreover, we showed that the presence of alginate protected the lipase activity by protection from heat inactivation and from degradation by the endogenous, extracellular protease elastase LasB. This effect was influenced by the chemical properties of the alginate molecules and was enhanced by the presence of O-acetyl groups in the alginate chain. CONCLUSION: We demonstrate that the extracellular lipase LipA from P. aeruginosa interacts with the polysaccharide alginate in the self-produced extracellular biofilm matrix of P. aeruginosa via electrostatic interactions suggesting a role of this interaction for enzyme immobilization and accumulation within biofilms. This represents a physiological advantage for the cells. Especially in the biofilm lifestyle, the enzyme is retained near the cell surface, with the catalytic centre exposed towards the substrate and is protected from denaturation and proteolytic degradation.

Susceptibility of Pseudomonas aeruginosa urinary tract isolates and influence of urinary tract conditions on antibiotic tolerance.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic human pathogen, which can cause severe urinary tract infections (UTIs). Because of the high intrinsic antibiotic resistance of P. aeruginosa and its ability to develop new resistances during antibiotic treatment, these infections are difficult to eradicate. The antibiotic susceptibility of 32 P. aeruginosa isolates from acute and chronic UTIs were analysed under standardized conditions showing 19% multi-drug resistant strains. Furthermore, the antibiotic tolerance of two P. aeruginosa strains to ciprofloxacin and tobramycin was analysed under urinary tract-relevant conditions which considered nutrient composition, biofilm growth, growth phase, and oxygen concentration. These conditions significantly enhance the antibiotic tolerance of P. aeruginosa up to 6000-fold indicating an adaptation of the bacterium to the specific conditions present in the urinary tract. This reversible phenomenon is possibly due to the increased formation of persister cells and is based on iron limitation in artificial urine. The results suggest that the general high antibiotic resistance of P. aeruginosa urinary tract isolates together with the increasing tolerance of P. aeruginosa grown under urinary tract conditions decrease the efficiency of antibiotic treatment of UTIs.

Genotypic and phenotypic characterization of Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from urinary tract infections.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is one of the most frequent agents of urinary tract infections especially in patients with indwelling urethral catheters. A total of 30 P. aeruginosa isolates from urinary tract infections was investigated for their genotypic and phenotypic characteristics. 'Single Nucleotide Polymorphism' chip typing experiments in combination with bioinformatical cluster analyses allowed genotypic grouping of the isolates. Some similarities to strains from lung infections but also to environmental strains were observed. Finally, several urinary tract-specific groups were identified indicating a strong heterogeneity of the urethral isolates. Pyoverdin, protease, and phospholipase A production in combination with quorum sensing activity and biofilm formation were common phenotypic characteristics of these strains. In contrast, swarming phenotypes, the production of pyocyanin, and the extracellular enzymes phospholipase C and elastase were rarely observed. Interestingly, strains isolated from catheter-associated infections showed significantly enhanced biofilm formation, decreased motility, and a slightly increased expression of virulence factors in relation to isolates from acute urinary tract infections.

Extracellular enzymes affect biofilm formation of mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa secretes a variety of hydrolases, many of which contribute to virulence or are thought to play a role in the nutrition of the bacterium. As most studies concerning extracellular enzymes have been performed on planktonic cultures of non-mucoid P. aeruginosa strains, knowledge of the potential role of these enzymes in biofilm formation in mucoid (alginate-producing) P. aeruginosa remains limited. Here we show that mucoid P. aeruginosa produces extracellular hydrolases during biofilm growth. Overexpression of the extracellular lipases LipA and LipC, the esterase EstA and the proteolytic elastase LasB from plasmids revealed that some of these hydrolases affected the composition and physicochemical properties of the extracellular polymeric substances (EPS). While no influence of LipA was observed, the overexpression of estA and lasB led to increased concentrations of extracellular rhamnolipids with enhanced levels of mono-rhamnolipids, elevated amounts of total carbohydrates and decreased alginate concentrations, resulting in increased EPS hydrophobicity and viscosity. Moreover, we observed an influence of the enzymes on cellular motility. Overexpression of estA resulted in a loss of twitching motility, although it enhanced the ability to swim and swarm. The lasB-overexpression strain showed an overall enhanced motility compared with the parent strain. Moreover, the EstA- and LasB-overproduction strains completely lost the ability to form 3D biofilms, whereas the overproduction of LipC increased cell aggregation and the heterogeneity of the biofilms formed. Overall, these findings indicate that directly or indirectly, the secreted enzymes EstA, LasB and LipC can influence the formation and architecture of mucoid P. aeruginosa biofilms as a result of changes in EPS composition and properties, as well as the motility of the cells.

Genetic tools for the investigation of Roseobacter clade bacteria.

BACKGROUND: The Roseobacter clade represents one of the most abundant, metabolically versatile and ecologically important bacterial groups found in marine habitats. A detailed molecular investigation of the regulatory and metabolic networks of these organisms is currently limited for many strains by missing suitable genetic tools. RESULTS: Conjugation and electroporation methods for the efficient and stable genetic transformation of selected Roseobacter clade bacteria including Dinoroseobacter shibae, Oceanibulbus indolifex, Phaeobacter gallaeciensis, Phaeobacter inhibens, Roseobacter denitrificans and Roseobacter litoralis were tested. For this purpose an antibiotic resistance screening was performed and suitable genetic markers were selected. Based on these transformation protocols stably maintained plasmids were identified. A plasmid encoded oxygen-independent fluorescent system was established using the flavin mononucleotide-based fluorescent protein FbFP. Finally, a chromosomal gene knockout strategy was successfully employed for the inactivation of the anaerobic metabolism regulatory gene dnr from D. shibae DFL12T. CONCLUSION: A genetic toolbox for members of the Roseobacter clade was established. This provides a solid methodical basis for the detailed elucidation of gene regulatory and metabolic networks underlying the ecological success of this group of marine bacteria.

Gene Flow Across Genus Barriers - Conjugation of Dinoroseobacter shibae's 191-kb Killer Plasmid into Phaeobacter inhibens and AHL-mediated Expression of Type IV Secretion Systems.

Rhodobacteraceae harbor a conspicuous wealth of extrachromosomal replicons (ECRs) and therefore the exchange of genetic material via horizontal transfer has been supposed to be a major evolutionary driving force. Many plasmids in this group encode type IV secretion systems (T4SS) that are expected to mediate transfer of proteins and/or DNA into host cells, but no experimental evidence of either has yet been provided. Dinoroseobacter shibae, a species of the Roseobacter group within the Rhodobacteraceae family, contains five ECRs that are crucial for anaerobic growth, survival under starvation and the pathogenicity of this model organism. Here we tagged two syntenous but compatible RepABC-type plasmids of 191 and 126-kb size, each encoding a T4SS, with antibiotic resistance genes and demonstrated their conjugational transfer into a distantly related Roseobacter species, namely Phaeobacter inhibens. Pulsed field gel electrophoresis showed transfer of those replicons into the recipient both individually but also together documenting the efficiency of conjugation. We then studied the influence of externally added quorum sensing (QS) signals on the expression of the T4SS located on the sister plasmids. A QS deficient D. shibae null mutant (ΔluxI1 ) lacking synthesis of N-acyl-homoserine lactones (AHLs) was cultivated with a wide spectrum of chemically diverse long-chain AHLs. All AHLs with lengths of the acid side-chain ≥14 reverted the ΔluxI1 phenotype to wild-type. Expression of the T4SS was induced up to log2 ∼3fold above wild-type level. We hypothesize that conjugation in roseobacters is QS-controlled and that the QS system may detect a wide array of long-chain AHLs at the cell surface.

Alginate acetylation influences initial surface colonization by mucoid Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Mucoid strains of Pseudomonas aeruginosa overproduce the exopolysaccharide alginate, which is substituted with O-acetyl groups. Under non-growing conditions in phosphate buffer, a mucoid clinical strain formed microcolonies on steel surfaces, while an acetylation-defective mutant was unable to form cell clusters. Enzymatic degradation of alginate by alginate lyase prevented microcolony formation of the mucoid parent strain. In a continuous-culture flow-cell system, using gluconate minimal medium, the mucoid strain with acetylated alginate formed microcolonies and grew into heterogenous biofilms, whereas the acetylation-defective mutant produced a thinner and more homogeneous biofilm. A lowered viscosity of extracellular material from the acetylation-defective mutant indicated a weakening of exopolymer interactions by loss of acetyl groups. These results suggest that acetyl substituents are necessary for the function of high-molecular-mass alginate to mediate cell aggregation into microcolonies in the early stages of biofilm development by mucoid P. aeruginosa, thereby determining the architecture of the mature biofilm.

Genome Sequence of the Urethral Isolate Pseudomonas aeruginosa RN21.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is known to cause complicated urinary tract infections (UTI). The improved 7.0-Mb draft genome sequence of P. aeruginosa RN21, isolated from a patient with an acute UTI, was determined. It carries three (pro)phage genomes, genes for two restriction/modification systems, and a clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)/CRISPR-associated (Cas) system.

Genome Sequence of the Urethral Catheter Isolate Pseudomonas aeruginosa MH19.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a frequent agent of complicated catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs). Here, we present the improved 7.1-Mb draft genome sequence of P. aeruginosa MH19, which was isolated from a patient with an acute hospital-acquired CAUTI. It includes unique genes not represented in other P. aeruginosa genomes.

Robustness and plasticity of metabolic pathway flux among uropathogenic isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a human pathogen that frequently causes urinary tract and catheter-associated urinary tract infections. Here, using 13C-metabolic flux analysis, we conducted quantitative analysis of metabolic fluxes in the model strain P. aeruginosa PAO1 and 17 clinical isolates. All P. aeruginosa strains catabolized glucose through the Entner-Doudoroff pathway with fully respiratory metabolism and no overflow. Together with other NADPH supplying reactions, this high-flux pathway provided by far more NADPH than needed for anabolism: a benefit for the pathogen to counteract oxidative stress imposed by the host. P. aeruginosa recruited the pentose phosphate pathway exclusively for biosynthesis. In contrast to glycolytic metabolism, which was conserved among all isolates, the flux through pyruvate metabolism, the tricarboxylic acid cycle, and the glyoxylate shunt was highly variable, likely caused by adaptive processes in individual strains during infection. This aspect of metabolism was niche-specific with respect to the corresponding flux because strains isolated from the urinary tract clustered separately from those originating from catheter-associated infections. Interestingly, most glucose-grown strains exhibited significant flux through the glyoxylate shunt. Projection into the theoretical flux space, which was computed using elementary flux-mode analysis, indicated that P. aeruginosa metabolism is optimized for efficient growth and exhibits significant potential for increasing NADPH supply to drive oxidative stress response.

Genome Sequence of the Acute Urethral Catheter Isolate Pseudomonas aeruginosa MH38.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a major nosocomial bacterial pathogen causing complicated catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs). Here, we present the 6.9-Mb draft genome sequence of P. aeruginosa MH38 isolated from an acute nosocomial CAUTI. It exhibits resistance to several antibiotics but revealed low-level production of virulence factors.

Genome Sequence of the Small-Colony Variant Pseudomonas aeruginosa MH27, Isolated from a Chronic Urethral Catheter Infection.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a notable nosocomial pathogen causing severe chronic infections. Here we present the draft genome sequence of P. aeruginosa MH27, isolated from a patient with a chronic hospital-acquired catheter-associated urinary tract infection. The 7.1-Mb genome sequence organized in 24 scaffolds contributes to the understanding of biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance.

Regulatory and metabolic networks for the adaptation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms to urinary tract-like conditions.

Biofilms of the Gram-negative bacterium Pseudomonas aeruginosa are one of the major causes of complicated urinary tract infections with detrimental outcome. To develop novel therapeutic strategies the molecular adaption strategies of P. aeruginosa biofilms to the conditions of the urinary tract were investigated thoroughly at the systems level using transcriptome, proteome, metabolome and enzyme activity analyses. For this purpose biofilms were grown anaerobically in artificial urine medium (AUM). Obtained data were integrated bioinformatically into gene regulatory and metabolic networks. The dominating response at the transcriptome and proteome level was the adaptation to iron limitation via the broad Fur regulon including 19 sigma factors and up to 80 regulated target genes or operons. In agreement, reduction of the iron cofactor-dependent nitrate respiratory metabolism was detected. An adaptation of the central metabolism to lactate, citrate and amino acid as carbon sources with the induction of the glyoxylate bypass was observed, while other components of AUM like urea and creatinine were not used. Amino acid utilization pathways were found induced, while fatty acid biosynthesis was reduced. The high amounts of phosphate found in AUM explain the reduction of phosphate assimilation systems. Increased quorum sensing activity with the parallel reduction of chemotaxis and flagellum assembly underscored the importance of the biofilm life style. However, reduced formation of the extracellular polysaccharide alginate, typical for P. aeruginosa biofilms in lungs, indicated a different biofilm type for urinary tract infections. Furthermore, the obtained quorum sensing response results in an increased production of virulence factors like the extracellular lipase LipA and protease LasB and AprA explaining the harmful cause of these infections.

An in vitro urinary tract catheter system to investigate biofilm development in catheter-associated urinary tract infections.

Biofilm development in urinary tract catheters is an often underestimated problem. However, this form of infection leads to high mortality rates and causes significant costs in health care. Therefore, it is important to analyze these biofilms and establish avoiding strategies. In this study a continuous flow-through system for the cultivation of biofilms under catheter-associated urinary tract infection conditions was established and validated. The in vitro urinary tract catheter system implies the composition of urine (artificial urine medium), the mean volume of urine of adults (1 mL min(-1)), the frequently used silicone catheter (foley silicon catheter) as well as the infection with uropathogenic microorganisms like Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Three clinical isolates from urine of catheterized patients were chosen due to their ability to form biofilms, their mobility and their cell surface hydrophobicity. As reference strain P. aeruginosa PA14 has been used. Characteristic parameters as biofilm thickness, specific biofilm growth rate and substrate consumption were observed. Biofilm thicknesses varied from 105±16 µm up to 246±67 µm for the different isolates. The specific biofilm growth rate could be determined with a non invasive optical biomass sensor. This sensor allows online monitoring of the biofilm growth in the progress of the cultivation.

Contribution of oxygen-limiting conditions to persistent infection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a versatile opportunistic human pathogen that is able to colonize a broad spectrum of different aquatic and soil habitats. In the environment and during pathogenesis, P. aeruginosa encounters oxygen-limited and anaerobic environments. Particularly during chronic infection of the cystic fibrosis lung, oxygen-limiting conditions seem to contribute to persistent infection. Oxygen limitation increases antibiotic tolerance, robust biofilms and alginate biosynthesis, which contribute to the persistence of this opportunistic pathogen. Despite the importance of anaerobic metabolism during persistent infection of P. aeruginosa, we are just beginning to understand the underlying regulatory network and the molecular basis of how anaerobic metabolism contributes to a persistent infection. A deeper understanding of the anaerobic physiology of P. aeruginosa will allow the identification of new antibiotic targets and new therapeutic strategies.

Lipase LipC affects motility, biofilm formation and rhamnolipid production in Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Pseudomonas aeruginosa produces and secretes several lipolytic enzymes, among them the lipases LipA and LipC. LipA is encoded within the lipA/lipH operon, together with its cognate foldase LipH, which was also found to be required for the functional expression of LipC. At present, the physiological function of LipC is unknown. We have cloned a synthetic operon consisting of the lipC structural gene and the foldase gene lipH obtained from the lipA/lipH operon and have constructed, in parallel, a lipC-deficient P. aeruginosa mutant. Inactivation of the lipC gene significantly impaired type IV pilus-dependent twitching and swarming motility, but also the flagella-mediated swimming motility of P. aeruginosa. Moreover, for the lipC mutant, we observed a significant decrease in the amount of extracellular rhamnolipids. Also, the P. aeruginosa lipC mutant showed a significantly altered biofilm architecture. Proteome analysis revealed the accumulation of the response regulator protein PhoP in the lipC mutant.