A Squaramide-Based Organocatalyst as a Novel Versatile Chiral Solvating Agent for Carboxylic Acids.

A squaramide-based organocatalyst for asymmetric Michael reactions has been tested as a chiral solvating agent (CSA) for 26 carboxylic acids and camphorsulfonic acid, encompassing amino acid derivatives, mandelic acid, as well as some of its analogs, propionic acids like profens (ketoprofen and ibuprofen), butanoic acids and others. In many cases remarkably high enantiodifferentiations at 1H, 13C and 19F nuclei were observed. The interaction likely involves a proton transfer from the acidic substrates to the tertiary amine sites of the organocatalyst, thus allowing for pre-solubilization of the organocatalyst (when a chloroform solution of the substrate is employed) or the simultaneous solubilization of both the catalyst and the substrate. DOSY experiments were employed to evaluate whether the catalyst-substrate ionic adduct was a tight one or not. ROESY experiments were employed to investigate the role of the squaramide unit in the adduct formation. A mechanism of interaction was proposed in accordance with the literature data.

Isohexide-Based Tunable Chiral Platforms as Amide- and Thiourea-Chiral Solvating Agents for the NMR Enantiodiscrimination of Derivatized Amino Acids.

New arylamide- and arylthiourea-based chiral solvating agents (CSAs) were synthesized starting from commercially available isomannide and isosorbide. The two natural isohexides were transformed into the three amino derivatives, having isomannide, isosorbide, and isoidide stereochemistry, then the amino groups were derivatized with 3,5-dimethoxybenzoyl chloride or 3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl isothiocyanate to obtain the CSAs. Bis-thiourea derivative containing the 3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl moiety with exo-exo stereochemistry was remarkably efficient in the differentiation of NMR signals (NH and acetyl) of enantiomers of N-acetyl (N-Ac) amino acids in the presence of 1,4-diazabicyclo[2,2,2]octane (DABCO). Nonequivalences in the ranges of 0.104-0.343 ppm and 0.042-0.107 ppm for NH and acetyl groups, respectively, allowed for very accurate enantiomeric excess determination, and a reliable correlation was found between the relative positions of signals of enantiomers and their absolute configuration. Therefore, a complete stereochemical characterization could be performed. Dipolar interactions detected in the ternary mixture CSA/N-Ac-valine/DABCO led to the identification of a different interaction model for the two enantiomers, involving the formation of a one-to-one substrate/CSA complex for (S)-N-Ac-valine and a one-to-two complex for (R)-N-Ac-valine, as suggested by the complexation stoichiometry.

A Thiourea Derivative of 2-[(1R)-1-Aminoethyl]phenol as a Chiral Sensor for the Determination of the Absolute Configuration of N-3,5-Dinitrobenzoyl Derivatives of Amino Acids.

In the exploration of chiral solvating agents (CSAs) for nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy designed for the chiral analysis of amino acid derivatives, notable advancements have been made with thiourea-CSAs. 1-TU, derived from 2-[(1R)-1-aminoethyl]phenol and benzoyl isothiocyanate, is effective in the enantiodifferentiation of N-3,5-dinitrobenzoyl (N-DNB) amino acids. In order to broaden the application of 1-TU for configurational assignment, enantiomerically enriched N-DNB amino acids were analyzed via NMR. A robust correlation was established between the relative position of specific 1H and 13C NMR resonances of the enantiomers in the presence of 1-TU. 1,4-Diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO) was selected for the complete solubilization of amino acid substrates. Notably, the para and ortho protons of the N-DNB moiety displayed higher frequency shifts for the (R)-enantiomers as opposed to the (S)-enantiomers. This trend was consistently observed in the 13C NMR spectra for quaternary carbons bonded to NO2 groups. Conversely, an inverse correlation was noted for quaternary carbon resonances of the carboxyl moiety, amide carbonyl, and methine carbon at the chiral center. This observed trend aligns with the interaction mechanism previously reported for the same chiral auxiliary. The configurational correlation can be effectively exploited under conditions of high dilution or, significantly, under sub-stoichiometric conditions.

Silylated-Acetylated Cyclodextrins as Chiral Sensors for the Enantiodiscrimination of Fluorinated Anesthetics.

Silylated-acetylated cyclodextrin (CD) derivatives have recently been investigated, via nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, as chiral sensors for substrates that are endowed and devoid of fluorine atoms, and the importance of Si-F interaction in the discrimination phenomena has been assessed. Here, the contributions of both superficial interactions and inclusion processes were further evaluated by extending the records to other chiral fluorinated substrates of interest for pharmaceutical applications. Non-equivalences were measured for both the 1H and 19F resonances in equimolar mixtures with the CDs; the promising results also supported the use of chiral sensors in sub-stoichiometric amounts. Finally, the occurrence of inclusion processes was evaluated by analyzing the intermolecular dipolar interactions by means of ROESY (Rotating-frame Overhauser Enhancement Spectroscopy) experiments. The study confirmed that the γCD derivative is the best chiral solvating agent for the fluorinated substrates investigated, likely due to the higher number of silyl moieties that can be involved in Si-F interactions. The contribution of inclusion processes to the enantiodiscrimination was also confirmed by comparison with the α- and ß-analogues. Overall, the CD derivatives proved to be able to discriminate fluorinated substrates even when used in sub-stoichiometric amounts.

The Phenomenon of Self-Induced Diastereomeric Anisochrony and Its Implications in NMR Spectroscopy.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is an analytical technique largely applied in the analysis of discrimination processes involving enantiomeric substrates and chiral agents, which can interact with the analyte either via covalent bonding or via formation of diastereomeric solvates. However, enantiodiscrimination has been observed, in some cases, even in the absence of any additional chiral selector. The reasons behind this phenomenon must be found in the capability of some chiral substrates to interact with themselves by forming diastereomeric solvates in solution that can generate nonequivalences in the NMR spectra of enantiomerically enriched mixtures. As a result, differentiation of enantiomers is observed, thus allowing the quantification of the enantiomeric composition of the mixture under investigation. The tendency of certain substrates to self-aggregate and to generate diastereomeric adducts in solution can be defined as Self-Induced Diastereomeric Anisochrony (SIDA), but other acronyms have been used to refer to this phenomenon. In the present work, an overview of SIDA processes investigated via NMR spectroscopy will be provided, with a particular emphasis on the nature of the substrates involved, on the interaction mechanisms at the basis of the phenomenon, and on theoretical treatments proposed in the literature to explain them.

Renewable Resources for Enantiodiscrimination: Chiral Solvating Agents for NMR Spectroscopy from Isomannide and Isosorbide.

A new family of chiral selectors was synthesized in a single synthetic step with yields up to 84% starting from isomannide and isosorbide. Mono- or disubstituted carbamate derivatives were obtained by reacting the isohexides with electron-donating arylisocyanate (3,5-dimethylphenyl- or 3,5-dimethoxyphenyl-) and electron-withdrawing arylisocyanate (3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl-) groups to test opposite electronic effects on enantiodifferentiation. Deeper chiral pockets and derivatives with more acidic protons were obtained by derivatization with 1-naphthylisocyanate and p-toluenesulfonylisocyanate, respectively. All compounds were tested as chiral solvating agents (CSAs) in 1H NMR experiments with rac-N-3,5-dinitrobenzoylphenylglycine methyl ester in order to determine the influence of different structural features on the enantiodiscrimination capabilities. Some selected compounds were tested with other racemic analytes, still leading to enantiodiscrimination. The enantiodiscrimination conditions were then optimized for the best CSA/analyte couple. Finally, a 2D- and 1D-NMR study was performed employing the best performing CSA with the two enantiomers of the selected analyte, aiming to determine the enantiodiscrimination mechanism, the stoichiometry of interaction, and the complexation constant.

Bis-Thiourea Chiral Sensor for the NMR Enantiodiscrimination of N-Acetyl and N-Trifluoroacetyl Amino Acid Derivatives.

A C2-symmetrical bis-thiourea chiral solvating agent (CSA), TFTDA, for NMR spectroscopy has been obtained by reacting (1R,2R)-1,2-bis(2-hydroxyphenyl)ethylenediamine and 3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl isothiocyanate. TFTDA shows remarkable propensity to enantiodiscriminate N-trifluoroacetyl (N-TFA) and N-acetyl (N-Ac) derivatives of amino acids with free carboxyl functions, with the co-presence of 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO) as the third achiral additive, which is needed for substrate solubilization. TFTDA shows enhanced enantiodiscriminating efficiency in comparison with the corresponding monomeric counterpart, TFTMA, pointing out cooperativity between its two symmetrical entities. A wide range of amino acid derivatives have been efficiently enantiodiscriminated in CDCl3, with high enantioresolution quotients, which guarantee high quality in applications devoted to the quantification of enantiomers. High enantiodiscriminating efficiency is maintained also in diluted 5 mM conditions or in the presence of sub-stoichiometric amounts of CSA (0.3 equiv). The role of phenolic hydroxyls in the DABCO-mediated interaction mechanism between TFTDA and the two enantiomeric substrates has been pointed out by means of diffusion-ordered spectroscopy (DOSY) and rotating frame Overhauser effect spectroscopy (ROESY) experiments. A conformational model for both the CSA and its diastereomeric solvates formed with the two enantiomers of N-acetyl leucine has also been conceived on the basis of ROE data in order to give a chiral discrimination rationale.

A Unique and Stable Polyproline I Helix Sorted out from Conformational Equilibrium by Solvent Polarity.

Polyproline I helical structures are often considered as the hidden face of their most famous geminal sibling, Polyproline II, as PPI is generally spotted only within a conformational equilibrium. We designed and synthesized a stable Polyproline I structure exploiting the striking tendency of (S)-indoline-2-carboxylic acid to drive the peptide bond conformation toward the cis amide isomer, when dissolved in polar solvents. The cooperative effect of only four amino acidic units is sufficient to form a preferential structure in solution. We shed light on this rare secondary structure with a thorough analysis of the spectroscopic and chiroptical properties of the tetramer, supported by X-ray crystallography and computational studies.

Quinine as a highly responsive chiral sensor for the 1H and 19F NMR enantiodiscrimination of N-trifluoroacetyl amino acids with free carboxyl functions.

Hydrogen-bond accepting and enantiodiscriminating abilities of quinine (Qui) have been exploited in the enantiodiscrimination of N-trifluoroacetyl (TFA) derivatives of amino acids by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. 1H and 19F NMR resonances of derivatives of alanine, valine, leucine, norvaline, phenylalanine, phenylglycine, methionine, glutamic acid, proline, and tryptophan were well differentiated employing CDCl3 and/or C6D6 as solvent, with Qui acting in some cases not only as enantiodiscriminating agent, but also as solubility promoter. For derivatives soluble in both solvents, the best results were obtained in benzene-d6, with very high nonequivalence values, which were detectable not only starting from very low equimolar concentrations of 0.1 mM, but also in the presence of sub-stoichiometric amounts of Qui. The quality of enantiodifferentiation has been also evaluated by means of the enantioresolution quotient E. The method has been applied to the detection and quantification of mixtures of amino acid derivatives by single point measurements.

Chiral Discrimination Mechanisms by Silylated-Acetylated Cyclodextrins: Superficial Interactions vs. Inclusion.

Cyclodextrin derivatives constitute a powerful class of auxiliary agents for the discrimination of apolar chiral substrates. Both host-guest inclusion phenomena and interactions with the derivatizing groups located on the surface of the macrocycle could drive the enantiodiscrimination; thus, it is important to understand the role that these processes play in the rational design of new chiral selectors. The purpose of this study is to compare via nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy the efficiency of silylated-acetylated α-, ß-, and γ-cyclodextrins in the chiral discrimination of 1,1,1,3,3-pentafluoro-2-(fluoromethoxy)-3-methoxypropane (compound B) and methyl 2-chloropropionate (MCP). NMR DOSY (Diffusion Ordered SpectroscopY) experiments were conducted for the determination of the bound molar fractions and the association constants, whereas ROESY (Rotating-frame Overhauser Enhancement SpectroscopY) measurements provided information on the hosts' conformation and on the interaction phenomena with the guests. Compound B, endowed with fluorinated moieties, is not deeply included due to attractive Si-F interactions occurring at the external surface of the cyclodextrins. Therefore, a low selectivity toward the size of cyclodextrin cavity is found. By contrast, enantiodiscrimination of MCP relies on the optimal fitting between the size of the guest and that of the cyclodextrin cavity.

NMR Investigation of the Interaction of Three Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs with Human Serum Albumin.

The understanding of the interaction between non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and human serum albumin plays a fundamental role in the development of new drugs and new therapeutic strategies. Several studies have been performed, nevertheless, the interaction phenomena are still not fully understood. In this work, high-field solution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was applied to compare the strength of the interaction of diclofenac sodium salt, ketorolac tris salt and flurbiprofen sodium salt toward albumin. To this aim, mono- and bi-selective relaxation rate measurements were performed by applying selective π-pulses at the selected frequencies and by following magnetization recovery. On the basis of the dependence of relaxation parameters on albumin concentration, normalized affinity indexes were calculated for several protons of the drugs. Affinity indexes for diclofenac were about five-fold higher in comparison with ketorolac and flurbiprofen. Aromatic moieties of the three drugs and methine protons at the chiral centers of ketorolac and flurbiprofen were more involved in the interaction with albumin. In conclusion, NMR spectroscopy allows not only for the comparison of drug-to-protein affinities but also points out the nature of the drug sites that are more extensively involved in the interaction.

A Dimeric Thiourea CSA for the Enantiodiscrimination of Amino Acid Derivatives by NMR Spectroscopy.

The reaction of benzoyl isothiocyanate with (1R,2R)-1,2-bis(2-hydroxyphenyl)ethylenediamine afforded a new thiourea chiral solvating agent (CSA) with a very high ability to differentiate 1H and 13C NMR signals of simple amino acid derivatives, even at low concentrations. The enantiodiscrimination efficiency was higher with respect to that of the parent monomer, a thiourea derivative of 2-((1R)-1-aminoethyl)phenol, thus putting into light the relevance of the cooperativity between the two molecular portions of the dimer in a cleft conformation stabilized by interchain hydrogen bond interactions. An achiral base additive (DABCO or DMAP) played an active role in the chiral discrimination processes, mediating the interaction between the CSA and the enantiomeric mixtures. The chiral discrimination mechanism was investigated by NMR spectroscopy through the determination of complexation stoichiometries, association constants, and the stereochemistry of the diastereomeric solvates.

Hydrolysis and Enantiodiscrimination of (R)- and (S)-Oxazepam Hemisuccinate by Methylated ß-Cyclodextrins: An NMR Investigation.

Partially and exhaustively methylated ß-cyclodextrins [(2-methyl)-ß-CD (MCD), heptakis-(2,6-di-O-methyl)-ß-CD (DIMEB), and heptakis-(2,3,6-tri-O-methyl)-ß-CD (TRIMEB)] have been compared in the hydrolysis and enantiodiscrimination of benzodiazepine derivative (R)- or (S)-oxazepam hemisuccinate (OXEMIS), using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy as an investigation tool. After 6 h, MCD induced an 11% hydrolysis of OXEMIS, remarkably lower in comparison with underivatized ß-CD (48%), whereas no hydrolysis was detected in the presence of DIMEB or TRIMEB after 24 h. DIMEB showed greater ability to differentiate OXEMIS enantiomers in comparison to TRIMEB, by contrast MCD did not produce any splitting of racemic OXEMIS resonances. Both enantiomers of OXEMIS underwent deep inclusion of their phenyl pendant into cyclodextrins cavities from their wider rims, but tighter complexes were formed by DIMEB with respect to TRIMEB.

Thiourea Derivative of 2-[(1R)-1-Aminoethyl]phenol: A Flexible Pocket-like Chiral Solvating Agent (CSA) for the Enantiodifferentiation of Amino Acid Derivatives by NMR Spectroscopy.

Thiourea derivatives of 2-[(1R)-1-aminoethyl]phenol, (1S,2R)-1-amino-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-ol, (1R,2R)-(1S,2R)-1-amino-2,3-dihydro-1H-inden-2-ol, and (R)-1-phenylethanamine have been compared as chiral solvating agents (CSAs) for the enantiodiscrimination of derivatized amino acids using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Thiourea derivative, prepared by reacting 2-[(1R)-1-aminoethyl]phenol with benzoyl isothiocyanate, constitutes an effective CSA for the enantiodiscrimination of N-3,5-dinitrobenzoyl (DNB) derivatives of amino acids with free or derivatized carboxyl functions. A base additive 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane(DABCO)/N,N-dimethylpyridin-4-amine (DMAP)/NBu4OH) is required both to solubilize amino acid derivatives with free carboxyl groups in CDCl3 and to mediate their interaction with the chiral auxiliary to attain efficient differentiation of the NMR signals of enantiomeric substrates. For ternary systems CSA/substrate/DABCO, the chiral discrimination mechanism has been ascertained through the NMR determination of complexation stoichiometry, association constants, and stereochemical features of the diastereomeric solvates.

Gli1/DNA interaction is a druggable target for Hedgehog-dependent tumors.

Hedgehog signaling is essential for tissue development and stemness, and its deregulation has been observed in many tumors. Aberrant activation of Hedgehog signaling is the result of genetic mutations of pathway components or other Smo-dependent or independent mechanisms, all triggering the downstream effector Gli1. For this reason, understanding the poorly elucidated mechanism of Gli1-mediated transcription allows to identify novel molecules blocking the pathway at a downstream level, representing a critical goal in tumor biology. Here, we clarify the structural requirements of the pathway effector Gli1 for binding to DNA and identify Glabrescione B as the first small molecule binding to Gli1 zinc finger and impairing Gli1 activity by interfering with its interaction with DNA. Remarkably, as a consequence of its robust inhibitory effect on Gli1 activity, Glabrescione B inhibited the growth of Hedgehog-dependent tumor cells in vitro and in vivo as well as the self-renewal ability and clonogenicity of tumor-derived stem cells. The identification of the structural requirements of Gli1/DNA interaction highlights their relevance for pharmacologic interference of Gli signaling.

A water-soluble, mucoadhesive quaternary ammonium chitosan-methyl-ß-cyclodextrin conjugate forming inclusion complexes with dexamethasone.

The ocular bioavailability of lipophilic drugs, such as dexamethasone, depends on both drug water solubility and mucoadhesion/permeation. Cyclodextrins and chitosan are frequently employed to either improve drug solubility or prolong drug contact onto mucosae, respectively. Although the covalent conjugation of cyclodextrin and chitosan brings to mucoadhesive drug complexes, their water solubility is restricted to acidic pHs. This paper describes a straightforward grafting of methyl-ß-cyclodextrin (MCD) on quaternary ammonium chitosan (QA-Ch60), mediated by hexamethylene diisocyanate. The resulting product is a water-soluble chitosan derivative, having a 10-atom long spacer between the quaternized chitosan and the cyclodextrin. The derivative is capable of complexing the model drug dexamethasone and stable complexes were also observed for the lyophilized products. Furthermore, the conjugate preserves the mucoadhesive properties typical of quaternized chitosan and its safety as solubilizing excipient for ophthalmic applications was preliminary assessed by in vitro cytotoxicity evaluations. Taken as a whole, the observed features appear promising for future processing of the developed product into 3D solid forms, such as controlled drug delivery systems, films or drug eluting medical devices.

Hydrolytic inhibition of α-chymotrypsin by 2,8,14,20-tetrakis(D-leucyl-D-valinamido)resorc[4]arenecarboxylic acid: a spectroscopic NMR and computational combined approach.

The stereochemical features of 2,8,14,20-tetrakis(D-leucyl-D-valinamido)resorc[4]arenecarboxylic acid and the N-succinyl-L-alanyl-L-alanyl-L-prolyl-L-phenylalanine-4-nitroanilide polypeptide substrate were investigated by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Proton selective relaxation parameters gave the basis for the inhibitory activity of resorcin[4]arene in the hydrolysis of the polypeptide substrate by α-chymotrypsin. Results showed that an interaction between the resorcin[4]arene and α-chymotrypsin does occur, and involves the hydrophobic moiety of the macrocycle. This interaction is further reinforced by polar groups located on the side chains of the resorcin[4]arene, whereas the macrocycle-polypeptide substrate interaction is negligible. Conformational analysis and interaction studies carried out by molecular modeling are in good agreement with the NMR data, thus providing an additional support to the rationalization of the inhibitory potential of resorcin[4]arenes on the α-chymotrypsin activity.

Synergistic effects of trace amounts of water in the enantiodiscrimination processes by lipodex E: a spectroscopic and computational investigation.

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) investigations on mixtures containing octakis(3-O-butanoyl-2,6-di-O-pentyl)-γ-cyclodextrin (Lipodex E) and each enantiomer of methyl-2-chloropropionate (MCP) ascertained the role of trace amounts of water in the enantiodiscrimination processes. Water is deeply included into the cyclodextrin and favors the formation of the inclusion complex with (S)-MCP, whereas (R)-MCP is only slightly affected, thus causing a significant increase of NMR differentiation. Molecular dynamics simulations were performed to shed light on the possible behavior of Lipodex E in different conditions (i.e., solvent, inclusion complexes), providing energetic and atomistic details that are in agreement with NMR observations.

Monomeric and dimeric 9-O anthraquinone and phenanthryl derivatives of cinchona alkaloids as chiral solvating agents for the NMR enantiodiscrimination of chiral hemiesters.

Mono- and bis-alkaloid chiral auxiliaries with anthraquinone or phenanthryl cores were probed as chiral solvating agents (CSAs) for the enantiodiscrimination of chiral cyclic hemiesters. The dimeric anthraquinone derivative and the monomeric phenanthryl one showed remarkable efficiency in the nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) differentiation of enantiomeric mixtures of hemiesters. An anthraquinone analogous with a single alkaloid unit was remarkably less effective. The conformational prevalence of the chiral auxiliaries were ascertained by NMR.

Chiral NMR solvating additives for differentiation of enantiomers.

This chapter will describe the general features and main categories of chiral solvating agents (CSAs) for NMR spectroscopy, spanning from low-medium sized CSAs to macrocyclic ones. CSAs based on chiral ionic liquids (CILs) will be introduced in view of their increasing popularity, and, finally, a short paragraph will be dedicated to special applications of CSAs in particular experimental conditions. Several valuable works, which are mainly devoted to investigate enantiodifferentiation mechanisms by NMR, will not be discussed. The main objective is to identify the current trend in the research areas dedicated to the development of new CSAs for NMR spectroscopy.