APOBEC3-induced mutation of the hepatitis virus B DNA genome occurs during its viral RNA reverse transcription into (-)-DNA.

APOBEC3s are innate single-stranded DNA cytidine-to-uridine deaminases that catalyze mutations in both pathogen and human genomes with significant roles in human disease. However, how APOBEC3s mutate a single-stranded DNA that is available momentarily during DNA transcription or replication in vivo remains relatively unknown. In this study, utilizing hepatitis B virus (HBV) viral mutations, we evaluated the mutational characteristics of individual APOBEC3s with reference to the HBV replication process through HBV whole single-strand (-)-DNA genome mutation analyses. We found that APOBEC3s induced C-to-T mutations from the HBV reverse transcription start site continuing through the whole (-)-DNA transcript to the termination site with variable efficiency, in an order of A3B >> A3G > A3H-II or A3C. A3B had a 3-fold higher mutation efficiency than A3H-II or A3C with up to 65% of all HBV genomic cytidines being converted into uridines in a single mutation event, consistent with the A3B localized hypermutation signature in cancer, namely, kataegis. On the other hand, A3C expression led to a 3-fold higher number of mutation-positive HBV genome clones, although each individual clone had a lower number of C-to-T mutations. Like A3B, A3C preferred both 5'-TC and 5'-CC sequences, but to a lesser degree. The APOBEC3-induced HBV mutations were predominantly detected in the HBV rcDNA but were not detectable in other intermediates including HBV cccDNA and pgRNA by primer extension of their PCR amplification products. These data demonstrate that APOBEC3-induced HBV genome mutations occur predominantly when the HBV RNA genome was reversely transcribed into (-)-DNA in the viral capsid.

Class B Scavenger Receptors BI and BII Protect against LPS-Induced Acute Lung Injury in Mice by Mediating LPS.

Recent studies suggest an anti-inflammatory protective role for class B scavenger receptor BI (SR-BI) in endotoxin-induced inflammation and sepsis. Other data, including ours, provide evidence for an alternative role of SR-BI, facilitating bacterial and endotoxin uptake and contributing to inflammation and bacterial infection. Enhanced endotoxin susceptibility of SR-BI-deficient mice due to their anti-inflammatory glucocorticoid deficiency complicates the understanding of SR-BI's role in endotoxemia/sepsis, calling for the use of alternative models. In this study, using human SR-BI (hSR-BI) and hSR-BII transgenic mice, we found that SR-BI and, to a lesser extent, its splicing variant SR-BII protect against LPS-induced lung damage. At 20 h after intratracheal LPS instillation, the extent of pulmonary inflammation and vascular leakage was significantly lower in hSR-BI and hSR-BII transgenic mice than in wild-type mice. Higher bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) inflammatory cell count and protein content and lung tissue neutrophil infiltration found in wild-type mice were associated with markedly (2 to 3 times) increased proinflammatory cytokine production compared to these parameters in transgenic mice following LPS administration. The markedly lower endotoxin levels detected in BALF of transgenic versus wild-type mice and the significantly increased BODIPY-LPS uptake observed in lungs of hSR-BI and hSR-BII mice 20 h after the i.t. LPS injection suggest that hSR-BI- and hSR-BII-mediated enhanced LPS clearance in the airways could represent the mechanism of their protective role against LPS-induced acute lung injury.

Heat shock proteins stimulate APOBEC-3-mediated cytidine deamination in the hepatitis B virus.

Apolipoprotein B mRNA-editing enzyme catalytic subunit 3 (APOBEC-3) enzymes are cytidine deaminases that are broadly and constitutively expressed. They are often up-regulated during carcinogenesis and candidate genes for causing the major single-base substitution in cancer-associated DNA mutations. Moreover, APOBEC-3s are involved in host innate immunity against many viruses. However, how APOBEC-3 mutational activity is regulated in normal and pathological conditions remains largely unknown. Heat shock protein levels are often elevated in both carcinogenesis and viral infection and are associated with DNA mutations. Here, using mutational analyses of hepatitis B virus (HBV), we found that Hsp90 stimulates deamination activity of APOBEC-3G (A3G), A3B, and A3C during co-expression in human liver HepG2 cells. Hsp90 directly stimulated A3G deamination activity when the purified proteins were used in in vitro reactions. Hsp40, -60, and -70 also had variable stimulatory effects in the cellular assay, but not in vitro Sequencing analyses further demonstrated that Hsp90 increased both A3G cytosine mutation efficiency on HBV DNA and total HBV mutation frequency. In addition, Hsp90 shifted A3G's cytosine region selection in HBV DNA and increased A3G's 5' nucleoside preference for deoxycytidine (5'-CC). Furthermore, the Hsp90 inhibitor 17-N-allylamino-17-demethoxygeldanamycin dose dependently inhibited A3G and A3B mutational activity on HBV viral DNA. Hsp90 knockdown by siRNA or by Hsp90 active-site mutation also decreased A3G activity. These results indicate that heat shock proteins, in particular Hsp90, stimulate APOBEC-3-mediated DNA deamination activity, suggesting a potential physiological role in carcinogenesis and viral innate immunity.

Synthetic Amphipathic Helical Peptides Targeting CD36 Attenuate Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation and Acute Lung Injury.

Synthetic amphipathic helical peptides (SAHPs) designed as apolipoprotein A-I mimetics are known to bind to class B scavenger receptors (SR-Bs), SR-BI, SR-BII, and CD36, receptors that mediate lipid transport and facilitate pathogen recognition. In this study, we evaluated SAHPs, selected for targeting human CD36, by their ability to attenuate LPS-induced inflammation, endothelial barrier dysfunction, and acute lung injury (ALI). L37pA, which targets CD36 and SR-BI equally, inhibited LPS-induced IL-8 secretion and barrier dysfunction in cultured endothelial cells while reducing lung neutrophil infiltration by 40% in a mouse model of LPS-induced ALI. A panel of 20 SAHPs was tested in HEK293 cell lines stably transfected with various SR-Bs to identify SAHPs with preferential selectivity toward CD36. Among several SAHPs targeting both SR-BI/BII and CD36 receptors, ELK-B acted predominantly through CD36. Compared with L37pA, 5A, and ELK SAHPs, ELK-B was most effective in reducing the pulmonary barrier dysfunction, neutrophil migration into the lung, and lung inflammation induced by LPS. We conclude that SAHPs with relative selectivity toward CD36 are more potent at inhibiting acute pulmonary inflammation and dysfunction. These data indicate that therapeutic strategies using SAHPs targeting CD36, but not necessarily mimicking all apolipoprotein A-I functions, may be considered a possible new treatment approach for inflammation-induced ALI and pulmonary edema.

Human SR-BI and SR-BII Potentiate Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Inflammation and Acute Liver and Kidney Injury in Mice.

The class B scavenger receptors BI (SR-BI) and BII (SR-BII) are high-density lipoprotein receptors that recognize various pathogens, including bacteria and their products. It has been reported that SR-BI/II null mice are more sensitive than normal mice to endotoxin-induced inflammation and sepsis. Because the SR-BI/II knockout model demonstrates multiple immune and metabolic disorders, we investigated the role of each receptor in the LPS-induced inflammatory response and tissue damage using transgenic mice with pLiv-11-directed expression of human SR-BI (hSR-BI) or human SR-BII (hSR-BII). At 6 h after i.p. LPS injection, transgenic hSR-BI and hSR-BII mice demonstrated markedly higher serum levels of proinflammatory cytokines and 2- to 3-fold increased expression levels of inflammatory mediators in the liver and kidney, compared with wild-type (WT) mice. LPS-stimulated inducible NO synthase expression was 3- to 6-fold higher in the liver and kidney of both transgenic strains, although serum NO levels were similar in all mice. Despite the lower high-density lipoprotein plasma levels, both transgenic strains responded to LPS by a 5-fold increase of plasma corticosterone levels, which were only moderately lower than in WT animals. LPS treatment resulted in MAPK activation in tissues of all mice; however, the strongest response was detected for hepatic extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1 and 2 and kidney JNK of both transgenic mice. Histological examination of hepatic and renal tissue from LPS-challenged mice revealed more injury in hSR-BII, but not hSR-BI, transgenic mice versus WT controls. Our findings demonstrate that hSR-BII, and to a lesser extent hSR-BI, significantly increase LPS-induced inflammation and contribute to LPS-induced tissue injury in the liver and kidney, two major organs susceptible to LPS toxicity.

Antagonism of scavenger receptor CD36 by 5A peptide prevents chronic kidney disease progression in mice independent of blood pressure regulation.

Scavenger receptor CD36 participates in lipid metabolism and inflammatory pathways important for cardiovascular disease and chronic kidney disease (CKD). Few pharmacological agents are available to slow the progression of CKD. However, apolipoprotein A-I-mimetic peptide 5A antagonizes CD36 in vitro. To test the efficacy of 5A, and to test the role of CD36 during CKD, we compared wild-type to CD36 knockout mice and wild-type mice treated with 5A, in a progressive CKD model that resembles human disease. Knockout and 5A-treated wild-type mice were protected from CKD progression without changes in blood pressure and had reductions in cardiovascular risk surrogate markers that are associated with CKD. Treatment with 5A did not further protect CD36 knockout mice from CKD progression, implicating CD36 as its main site of action. In a separate model of kidney fibrosis, 5A-treated wild-type mice had less macrophage infiltration and interstitial fibrosis. Peptide 5A exerted anti-inflammatory effects in the kidney and decreased renal expression of inflammasome genes. Thus, CD36 is a new therapeutic target for CKD and its associated cardiovascular risk factors. Peptide 5A may be a promising new agent to slow CKD progression.

Class B scavenger receptor types I and II and CD36 mediate bacterial recognition and proinflammatory signaling induced by Escherichia coli, lipopolysaccharide, and cytosolic chaperonin 60.

Class B scavenger receptors (SR-B) are lipoprotein receptors that also mediate pathogen recognition, phagocytosis, and clearance as well as pathogen-induced signaling. In this study we report that three members of the SR-B family, namely, CLA-1, CLA-2, and CD36, mediate recognition of bacteria not only through interaction with cell wall LPS but also with cytosolic chaperonin 60. HeLa cells stably transfected with any of these SR-Bs demonstrated markedly (3- to 5-fold) increased binding and endocytosis of Escherichia coli, LPS, and chaperonin 60 (GroEL) as revealed by both FACS analysis and confocal microscopy imaging. Increased pathogen (E. coli, LPS, and GroEL) binding to SR-Bs was also associated with the dose-dependent stimulation of cytokine secretion in the order of CD36 > CLA-2 > CLA-1 in HEK293 cells. Pathogen-induced IL-6-secretion was reduced in macrophages from CD36- and SR-BI/II-null mice by 40-50 and 30-40%, respectively. Intravenous GroEL administration increased plasma IL-6 and CXCL1 levels in mice. The cytokine responses were 40-60% lower in CD36(-/-) relative to wild-type mice, whereas increased cytokine responses were found in SR-BI/II(-/-) mice. While investigating the discrepancy of in vitro versus in vivo data in SR-BI/II deficiency, SR-BI/II(-/-) mice were found to respond to GroEL administration without increases in either plasma corticosterone or aldosterone as normally seen in wild-type mice. SR-BI/II(-/-) mice with mineralocorticoid replacement demonstrated an ∼40-50% reduction in CXCL1 and IL-6 responses. These results demonstrate that, by recognizing and mediating inflammatory signaling of both bacterial cell wall LPS and cytosolic GroEL, all three SR-B family members play important roles in innate immunity and host defense.

Class B scavenger receptor types I and II and CD36 targeting improves sepsis survival and acute outcomes in mice.

Class B scavenger receptors (SR-Bs), such as SR-BI/II or CD36, bind lipoproteins but also mediate bacterial recognition and phagocytosis. In evaluating whether blocking receptors can prevent intracellular bacterial proliferation, phagocyte cytotoxicity, and proinflammatory signaling in bacterial infection/sepsis, we found that SR-BI/II- or CD36-deficient phagocytes are characterized by a reduced intracellular bacterial survival and a lower cytokine response and were protected from bacterial cytotoxicity in the presence of antibiotics. Mice deficient in either SR-BI/II or CD36 are protected from antibiotic-treated cecal ligation and puncture (CLP)-induced sepsis, with greatly increased peritoneal granulocytic phagocyte survival (8-fold), a drastic diminution in peritoneal bacteria counts, and a 50-70% reduction in systemic inflammation (serum levels of IL-6, TNF-α, and IL-10) and organ damage relative to CLP in wild-type mice. The survival rate of CD36-deficient mice after CLP was 58% compared with 17% in control mice. When compensated for mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid deficiency, SR-BI/II-deficient mice had nearly a 50% survival rate versus 5% in mineralo-/glucocorticoid-treated controls. Targeting SR-B receptors with L-37pA, a peptide that functions as an antagonist of SR-BI/II and CD36 receptors, also increased peritoneal granulocyte counts, as well as reduced peritoneal bacteria and bacterium-induced cytokine secretion. In the CLP mouse sepsis model, L-37pA improved survival from 6 to 27%, reduced multiple organ damage, and improved kidney function. These results demonstrate that the reduction of both SR-BI/II- and CD36-dependent bacterial invasion and inflammatory response in the presence of antibiotic treatment results in granulocyte survival and local bacterial containment, as well as reduces systemic inflammation and organ damage and improves animal survival during severe infections.

Scavenger receptor-BI is a receptor for lipoprotein(a).

Scavenger receptor class B type I (SR-BI) is a multi-ligand receptor that binds a variety of lipoproteins, including high density lipoprotein (HDL) and low density lipoprotein (LDL), but lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] has not been investigated as a possible ligand. Stable cell lines (HEK293 and HeLa) expressing human SR-BI were incubated with protein- or lipid-labeled Lp(a) to investigate SR-BI-dependent Lp(a) cell association. SR-BI expression enhanced the association of both (125)I- and Alexa Fluor-labeled protein from Lp(a). By confocal microscopy, SR-BI was also found to promote the internalization of fluorescent lipids (BODIPY-cholesteryl ester (CE)- and DiI-labeled) from Lp(a), and by immunocytochemistry the cellular internalization of apolipoprotein(a) and apolipoprotein B. When dual-labeled ((3)H-cholesteryl ether,(125)I-protein) Lp(a) was added to cells expressing SR-BI, there was a greater relative increase in lipid uptake over protein, indicating that SR-BI mediates selective lipid uptake from Lp(a). Compared with C57BL/6 control mice, transgenic mice overexpressing human SR-BI in liver were found to have increased plasma clearance of (3)H-CE-Lp(a), whereas mouse scavenger receptor class B type I knockout (Sr-b1-KO) mice had decreased plasma clearance (fractional catabolic rate: 0.63 ± 0.08/day, 1.64 ± 0.62/day, and 4.64 ± 0.40/day for Sr-b1-KO, C57BL/6, and human scavenger receptor class B type I transgenic mice, respectively). We conclude that Lp(a) is a novel ligand for SR-BI and that SR-BI mediates selective uptake of Lp(a)-associated lipids.

Hypermutation induced by APOBEC-1 overexpression can be eliminated.

APOBEC-1 overexpression in liver has been shown to effectively reduce apoB-100 levels. However, nonspecific hypermutation and liver tumor formation potentially related to hypermutation in transgenic animals compromise its potential use for gene therapy. In studying apoB mRNA editing regulation, we found that the core editing auxiliary factor ACF dose-dependently increases APOBEC-1 nonspecific hypermutation and specific editing with variable site sensitivity. Overexpression of APOBEC-1 together with ACF in human hepatic HepG2 cells hypermutated apoB mRNAs 20%-65% at sites 6639, 6648, 6655, 6762, 6802, and 6845, in addition to the normal 90% editing at 6666. The hypermutation activity of APOBEC-1 was decreased to background levels by a single point APOBEC-1 mutation of P29F or E181Q, while 50% of wild-type control editing at the normal site was retained. The hypermutations on both apoB and novel APOBEC-1 target 1 (NAT1) mRNA were also decreased to background levels with P29F and E181Q mutants in rat liver primary culture cells. The loss of hypermutation with the mutants was associated with significantly decreased APOBEC-1/ACF interaction. These data suggest that nonspecific hypermutation induced by overexpressing APOBEC-1 can be virtually eliminated by site-specific mutation, while maintaining specific editing activity at the normal site, reopening the potential use of APOBEC-1 gene therapy for hyperlipidemia.

CD36 is a novel serum amyloid A (SAA) receptor mediating SAA binding and SAA-induced signaling in human and rodent cells.

Serum amyloid A (SAA) is a major acute phase protein involved in multiple physiological and pathological processes. This study provides experimental evidence that CD36, a phagocyte class B scavenger receptor, functions as a novel SAA receptor mediating SAA proinflammatory activity. The uptake of Alexa Fluor 488 SAA as well as of other well established CD36 ligands was increased 5-10-fold in HeLa cells stably transfected with CD36 when compared with mock-transfected cells. Unlike other apolipoproteins that bind to CD36, only SAA induced a 10-50-fold increase of interleukin-8 secretion in CD36-overexpressing HEK293 cells when compared with control cells. SAA-mediated effects were thermolabile, inhibitable by anti-SAA antibody, and also neutralized by association with high density lipoprotein but not by association with bovine serum albumin. SAA-induced cell activation was inhibited by a CD36 peptide based on the CD36 hexarelin-binding site but not by a peptide based on the thrombospondin-1-binding site. A pronounced reduction (up to 60-75%) of SAA-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion was observed in cd36(-/-) rat macrophages and Kupffer cells when compared with wild type rat cells. The results of the MAPK phosphorylation assay as well as of the studies with NF-kappaB and MAPK inhibitors revealed that two MAPKs, JNK and to a lesser extent ERK1/2, primarily contribute to elevated cytokine production in CD36-overexpressing HEK293 cells. In macrophages, four signaling pathways involving NF-kappaB and three MAPKs all appeared to contribute to SAA-induced cytokine release. These observations indicate that CD36 is a receptor mediating SAA binding and SAA-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion predominantly through JNK- and ERK1/2-mediated signaling.

Role of human CD36 in bacterial recognition, phagocytosis, and pathogen-induced JNK-mediated signaling.

Scavenger receptor CD36 mediates Staphylococcus aureus phagocytosis and initiates TLR2/6 signaling. We analyzed the role of CD36 in the uptake and TLR-independent signaling of various bacterium, including Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Salmonella typhimurium, S. aureus, and Enterococcus faecalis. Expression of human CD36 in HeLa cells increased the uptake of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria compared with the control mock-transfected cells. Bacterial adhesion was associated with pathogen phagocytosis. Upon CD36 transfection, HEK293 cells, which demonstrate no TLR2/4 expression, acquired LPS responsiveness as assessed by IL-8 production. The cells demonstrated a marked 5- to 15-fold increase in cytokine release upon exposure to gram-negative bacteria, while the increase was much smaller (1.5- to 3-fold) with gram-positive bacteria and lipoteichoic acid. CD36 down-regulation utilizing CD36 small interfering RNA reduced cytokine release by 40-50% in human fibroblasts induced by both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria as well as LPS. Of all MAPK signaling cascade inhibitors tested, only the inhibitor of JNK, a stress-activated protein kinase, potently blocked E. coli/LPS-stimulated cytokine production. NF-kappaB inhibitors were ineffective, indicating direct TLR-independent signaling. JNK activation was confirmed by Western blot analyses of phosphorylated JKN1/2 products. Synthetic amphipathic peptides with an alpha-helical motif were shown to be efficient inhibitors of E. coli- and LPS-induced IL-8 secretion as well as JNK1/2 activation/phosphorylation in CD36-overexpressing cells. These results indicate that CD36 functions as a phagocytic receptor for a variety of bacteria and mediates signaling induced by gram-negative bacteria and LPS via a JNK-mediated signaling pathway in a TLR2/4-independent manner.

SR-BI mediates neutral lipid sorting from LDL to lipid droplets and facilitates their formation.

SR-BI binds various lipoproteins, including HDL, LDL as well as VLDL, and mediates selective cholesteryl ester (CE) uptake. HDL derived CE accumulates in cellular lipid droplets (LDs), which also store triacylglycerol (TAG). We hypothesized that SR-BI could significantly facilitate LD formation, in part, by directly transporting LDL derived neutral lipids (NL) such as CE and TAG into LDs without lipolysis and de novo lipid synthesis. SR-BI overexpression greatly increased LDL uptake and LD formation in stably transfected HeLa cells (SR-BI-HeLa). LDs isolated from SR-BI-HeLa contained 4- and 7-times more CE and TAG, respectively, than mock-transfected HeLa (Mock-HeLa). In contrast, LDL receptor overexpression in HeLa (LDLr-HeLa) greatly increased LDL uptake, degradation with moderate 1.5- and 2-fold increases of CE and TAG, respectively. Utilizing CE and TAG analogs, BODIPY-TAG (BP-TAG) and BODIPY-CE (BP-CE), for tracking LDL NL, we found that after initial binding of LDL to SR-BI-HeLa, apoB remained at the cell surface, while BP-CE and BP-TAG were sorted and simultaneously transported together to LDs. Both lipids demonstrated limited internalization to lysosomes or endoplasmic reticulum in SR-BI-HeLa. In LDLr-HeLa, NLs demonstrated clear lysosomal sequestration without their sorting to LDs. An inhibition of TAG and CE de novo synthesis by 90-95% only reduced TAG and CE LD content by 45-50%, and had little effect on BP-CE and BP-TAG transport to LDs in SR-BI HeLa. Furthermore, intravenous infusion of 1-2 mg of LDL increased liver LDs in normal (WT) but not in SR-BI KO mice. Mice transgenic for human SR-BI demonstrated higher liver LD accumulation than WT mice. Finally, Electro Spray Infusion Mass Spectrometry (ESI-MS) using deuterated d-CE found that LDs accumulated up to 40% of unmodified d-CE LDL. We conclude that SR-BI mediates LDL-induced LD formation in vitro and in vivo. In addition to cytosolic NL hydrolysis and de novo lipid synthesis, this process includes selective sorting and transport of LDL NL to LDs with limited lysosomal NL sequestration and the transport of LDL CE, and TAG directly to LDs independently of de novo synthesis.

Colon Epithelial MicroRNA Network in Fatty Liver.

Background & Aims: Intestinal barrier alterations are associated with fatty liver (FL) and metabolic syndrome (MetS), but microRNA (miR) signaling pathways in MetS-FL pathogenesis remain unclear. This study investigates an epithelial-focused miR network in colorectal cell models based on the previously reported MetS-FL miR trio of hsa-miR-142-3p, hsa-miR-18b, and hsa-miR-890. Methods: Each miR mimic construct of MetS-FL miR trio was transfected into human colorectal cells, CRL-1790 or Caco-2. Global miRNome changes posttransfection were profiled (nCounter® Human v3 miRNA, NanoString Technologies). Changes in barrier (transepithelial electrical resistance, TEER) and epithelial cell junction structure (Occludin and Zona Occludens-1/ZO-1 immunofluorescence staining-confocal microscopy) were examined pre- and posttransfection in Caco-2 cell monolayers. A signaling network was constructed from the MetS-FL miR trio, MetS-FL miR-induced colorectal miRNome changes, ZO-1, and Occludin. Results: Transfection of CRL-1790 cells with each MetS-FL miR mimic led to global changes in the cellular miRNome profile, with 288 miRs being altered in expression by more than twofold. Eleven miRs with known cytoskeletal and metabolic roles were commonly altered in expression by all three miR mimics. Transfection of Caco-2 cell monolayers with each MetS-FL miR mimic induced barrier-associated TEER variations and led to structural modifications of ZO-1 and Occludin within epithelial cell junctions. Pathway analysis incorporating the MetS-FL miR trio, eleven common target miRs, ZO-1, and Occludin revealed a signaling network centered on TNF and AKT2, which highlights injury, inflammation, and hyperplasia. Conclusions: Colon-specific changes in epithelial barriers, cell junction structure, and a miRNome signaling network are described from functional studies of a MetS-FL miR trio signature.

Human SR-BII mediates SAA uptake and contributes to SAA pro-inflammatory signaling in vitro and in vivo.

Serum amyloid A (SAA) is an acute phase protein with cytokine-like and chemotactic properties, that is markedly up-regulated during various inflammatory conditions. Several receptors, including FPRL-1, TLR2, TLR4, RAGE, class B scavenger receptors, SR-BI and CD36, have been identified as SAA receptors. This study provides new evidence that SR-BII, splice variant of SR-BI, could function as an SAA receptor mediating its uptake and pro-inflammatory signaling. The uptake of Alexa Fluor488 SAA was markedly (~3 fold) increased in hSR-BII-expressing HeLa cells when compared with mock-transfected cells. The levels of SAA-induced interleukin-8 secretion by hSR-BII-expressing HEK293 cells were also significantly (~3-3.5 fold) higher than those detected in control cells. Moderately enhanced levels of phosphorylation of all three mitogen-activated protein kinases, ERK1/2, and p38 and JNK, were observed in hSR-BII-expressing cells following SAA stimulation when compared with control wild type cells. Transgenic mice with pLiv-11-directed liver/kidney overexpression of hSR-BI or hSR-BII were used to assess the in vivo role of each receptor in SAA-induced pro-inflammatory response in these organs. Six hours after intraperitoneal SAA injection both groups of transgenic mice demonstrated markedly higher (~2-5-fold) expression levels of inflammatory mediators in the liver and kidney compared to wild type mice. Histological examinations of hepatic and renal tissue from SAA-treated mice revealed moderate level of damage in the liver of both transgenic but not in the wild type mice. Activities of plasma transaminases, biomarkers of liver injury, were also moderately higher in hSR-B transgenic mice when compared to wild type mice. Our findings identify hSR-BII as a functional SAA receptor that mediates SAA uptake and contributes to its pro-inflammatory signaling via the MAPKs-mediated signaling pathways.

Endothelial Expression of Scavenger Receptor Class B, Type I Protects against Development of Atherosclerosis in Mice.

The role of scavenger receptor class B, type I (SR-BI) in endothelial cells (EC) was examined in several novel transgenic mouse models expressing SR-BI in endothelium of mice with normal C57Bl6/N, apoE-KO, or Scarb1-KO backgrounds. Mice were also created expressing SR-BI exclusively in endothelium and liver. Endothelial expression of the Tie2-Scarb1 transgene had no significant effect on plasma lipoprotein levels in mice on a normal chow diet but on an atherogenic diet, significantly decreased plasma cholesterol levels, increased plasma HDL cholesterol (HDL-C) levels, and protected mice against atherosclerosis. In 8-month-old apoE-KO mice fed a normal chow diet, the Tie2-Scarb1 transgene decreased aortic lesions by 24%. Mice expressing SR-BI only in EC and liver had a 1.5 ± 0.1-fold increase in plasma cholesterol compared to mice synthesizing SR-BI only in liver. This elevation was due mostly to increased HDL-C. In EC culture studies, SR-BI was found to be present in both basolateral and apical membranes but greater cellular uptake of cholesterol from HDL was found in the basolateral compartment. In summary, enhanced expression of SR-BI in EC resulted in a less atherogenic lipoprotein profile and decreased atherosclerosis, suggesting a possible role for endothelial SR-BI in the flux of cholesterol across EC.

Hypermutation of ApoB mRNA by rat APOBEC-1 overexpression mimics APOBEC-3 hypermutation.

APOBEC-3 proteins induce C-to-U hypermutations in the viral genome of various viruses and have broad antiviral activity. Generally, only a small proportion of viral genomes (<10(-)(2)) are hypermutated by APOBEC-3s, but often many cytidines (up to 40%) are converted into uridine. The mechanism of this unique selective hypermutation remains unknown. We found that rat APOBEC-1 overexpression had a hypermutation pattern similar to that of APOBEC-3s on its substrate apolipoprotein B (apoB) mRNA. Transient plasmid transfection of rat APOBEC-1 resulted in 0.4% and 1.8% hypermutations with apoB mRNA in HepG2 and McA7777 cells, respectively. The low frequency of hypermutated apoB mRNA targets was enriched by differential DNA denaturation PCR at 72-76 °C, with hypermutation levels increasing up to 67%. Up to 69.6% of cytidines in HepG2 and up to 75.5% of cytidines in McA7777 cells were converted into uridines in the hypermutated apoB mRNA. When rat APOBEC-1 was overexpressed by adenovirus, the hypermutation frequency of apoB mRNA increased from 0.4% to ∼20% and was readily detected by regular PCR. However, this higher expression efficiency only increased the frequency of hypermutation, not the number of affected cytidines in hypermutated targets. Rat APOBEC-1 hypermutation was modulated by cofactors and eliminated by an E181Q mutation, indicating the role of cofactors in hypermutation. The finding of an APOBEC-3 hypermutation pattern with rat APOBEC-1 suggests that cofactors could also be involved in APOBEC-3 hypermutation. Using hepatitis B virus hypermutation, we found that KSRP increased APOBEC-3C and APOBEC-3B hypermutation. These data show that, like rat APOBEC-1 hypermutation, cellular factors may play a regulatory role in APOBEC-3 hypermutation.

CLA-1 and its splicing variant CLA-2 mediate bacterial adhesion and cytosolic bacterial invasion in mammalian cells.

CD36 and LIMPII analog 1, CLA-1, and its splicing variant, CLA-2 (SR-BI and SR-BII in rodents), are human high density lipoprotein receptors with an identical extracellular domain which binds a spectrum of ligands including bacterial cell wall components. In this study, CLA-1- and CLA-2-stably transfected HeLa and HEK293 cells demonstrated several-fold increases in the uptake of various bacteria over mock-transfected cells. All bacteria tested, including both Gram-negatives (Escherichia coli K12, K1 and Salmonella typhimurium) and Gram-positives (Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes), demonstrated various degrees of lower uptake in control cells. This result is consistent with the presence of high-density lipoprotein-receptor-independent bacterial uptake that is enhanced by CLA-1/CLA-2 overexpression. Bacterial lipopolysaccharides, lipoteichoic acid, and synthetic amphipathic helical peptides (L-37pA and D-37pA) competed with E. coli K12 for CLA-1 and CLA-2 binding. Transmission electron microscopy and confocal microscopy revealed cytosolic accumulation of bacteria in CLA-1/CLA-2-overexpressing HeLa cells. The antibiotic protection assay confirmed that E. coli K12 was able to survive and replicate intracellularly in CLA-1- and CLA-2-overexpressing HeLa, but both L-37pA and D-37pA prevented E. coli K12 invasion. Peritoneal macrophages isolated from SR-BI/BII-knockout mice demonstrated a 30% decrease in bacterial uptake when compared with macrophages from normal mice. Knockout macrophages were also characterized by decreased bacterial cytosolic invasion, ubiquitination, and proteasome mobilization while retaining bacterial lysosomal accumulation. These results indicate that, by facilitating bacterial adhesion and cytosolic invasion, CLA-1 and CLA-2 may play an important role in infection and sepsis.

Serum amyloid A binding to CLA-1 (CD36 and LIMPII analogous-1) mediates serum amyloid A protein-induced activation of ERK1/2 and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases.

Serum amyloid A protein (SAA) is an acute-phase reactant, known to mediate pro-inflammatory cellular responses. This study reports that CLA-1 (CD36 and LIMPII Analogous-1; human orthologue of the Scavenger Receptor Class B Type I (SR-BI)) mediates SAA uptake and downstream SAA signaling. Flow cytometry experiments revealed more than a 5-fold increase of Alexa-488 SAA uptake in HeLa cells stably transfected with CLA-1. Alexa 488-HDL uptake directly correlated with SAA uptake when determined in several CLA-1 stably transfected HeLa cell clones expressing various levels of CLA-1. SAA directly binds to CLA-1 as determined by cross-linking and colocalization of anti-CLA-1 antibody with SAA. SAA was co-internalized with transferrin to the endocytic recycling compartment pointing to a potential site of SAA metabolism. Alexa-488 SAA uptake in the CLA-1-overexpressing HeLa cells, as well as in THP-1 monocyte cell line, can be efficiently blocked by unlabeled SAA, high density lipoprotein, and other CLA-1 ligands. At the same time, markedly enhanced levels of phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), ERK1/2, and p38, were observed in cells stably transfected with CLA-1 cells following SAA stimulation when compared with mock transfected cells. The levels of the SAA-induced interleukin-8 (IL-8) secretion by CLA-1-overexpressing cells also significantly exceeded (5- to 10-fold) those detected for control cells. Synthetic amphipathic peptides possessing a structural alpha-helical motif inhibited SAA-induced activation of both MAPKs and IL-8 secretion in THP-1 cells. The results of this study demonstrate for the first time that CLA-1 functions as an endocytic SAA receptor and is involved in SAA-mediated cell signaling events associated with the immune-related and inflammatory effects of SAA.