Response-adapted therapy with infusional EPOCH chemotherapy plus rituximab in HIV-associated, B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.

Four cycles of rituximab plus CHOP chemotherapy is as effective as 6 cycles in low-risk diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL). Here we report a post-hoc analysis of a prospective clinical trial in patients with HIV-associated DLBCL and high-grade lymphoma treated with 4-6 cycles of EPOCH plus rituximab based a response-adapted treatment strategy. 106 evaluable patients with HIV-associated DLBCL or high-grade CD20-positive non-Hodgkin's lymphoma were randomized to receive rituximab (375 mg/m2) given either concurrently prior to each infusional EPOCH cycle, or sequentially (weekly for 6 weeks) following completion of EPOCH. EPOCH consisted of a 96-hour IV infusion of etoposide, doxorubicin, and vincristine plus oral prednisone followed by IV bolus cyclophosphamide every 21 days for 4 to 6 cycles. Patients received 2 additional cycles of therapy after documentation of a complete response (CR) by computerized tomography after cycles 2 and 4. 64 of 106 evaluable patients (60%, 95% CI 50%, 70%) had a CR in both treatment arms. The 2-year event-free survival (EFS) rates were similar in the 24 patients with CR who received 4 or fewer EPOCH cycles (78%, 95% confidence intervals [55%, 90%]) due to achieving a CR after 2 cycles, compared with those who received 5-6 cycles of EPOCH (85%, 95% CI 70%, 93%) because a CR was first documented after cycle 4. A response-adapted strategy may permit a shorter treatment duration without compromising therapeutic efficacy in patients with HIV-associated lymphoma treated with EPOCH plus rituximab, which merits further evaluation in additional prospective trials. Clinical Trials.gov identifier NCT00049036.

Phase I Trial of the Multi-kinase Inhibitor Cabozantinib, a CYP3A4 Substrate, plus CYP3A4-Interacting Antiretroviral Therapy in People Living with HIV and Cancer (AMC-087).

PURPOSE: To evaluate the safety, pharmacokinetics, and pharmacodynamic effects of cabozantinib, a CYP3A4 substrate, in people living with human immunodeficiency virus and cancer receiving antiretrovirals (ARV). PATIENTS AND METHODS: Patients received a reduced dose of cabozantinib (20 mg orally daily) with strong CYP3A4 inhibitors (ARV ritonavir or non-ARV cobicistat, stratum A), or a standard 60 mg dose with ARVs that are CYP3A4 inducers (efavirenz or etravirine, stratum B) or noninteracting ARVs (stratum C). Initial dose escalation in stratum A and stratum B was performed on the basis of tolerability. RESULTS: 36 patients received cabozantinib plus ARVs, including 20 in stratum A, 9 in B, and 7 in C. The recommended initial cabozantinib doses for stratum A, B, and C were 20, 60, and 60 mg, respectively. Doses of 40 or 60 mg plus CYP3A4 inhibitors in stratum A and 100 mg plus CYP3A4 inducers in stratum B were associated with excessive toxicity, whereas 60 mg with noninteracting ARVs was not. The steady state minimal concentrations were lower at 20 mg in stratum A or 60 mg in stratum B compared with 60 mg in stratum C, while total exposure was only lower in 60 mg in stratum B compared with 60 mg in stratum C. Activity was observed in Kaposi sarcoma and an AXL-amplified sarcoma. CONCLUSIONS: Cabozantinib as a single agent should be initiated at 20 mg daily and 60 mg daily when taken concurrently with ARVs that are strong CYP3A4 inhibitors and inducers, respectively, with consideration for subsequent escalation per current cabozantinib guidelines. See related commentary by Eisenmann and Sparreboom, p. 4999.

Rituximab plus concurrent infusional EPOCH chemotherapy is highly effective in HIV-associated B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma.

Rituximab plus intravenous bolus chemotherapy is a standard treatment for immunocompetent patients with B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Some studies have suggested that rituximab is associated with excessive toxicity in HIV-associated NHL, and that infusional chemotherapy may be more effective. We performed a randomized phase 2 trial of rituximab (375 mg/m(2)) given either concurrently before each infusional etoposide, vincristine, doxorubicin, cyclophosphamide, and prednisone (EPOCH) chemotherapy cycle or sequentially (weekly for 6 weeks) after completion of all chemotherapy in HIV-associated NHL. EPOCH consisted of a 96-hour intravenous infusion of etoposide, doxorubicin, and vincristine plus oral prednisone followed by intravenous bolus cyclophosphamide given every 21 days for 4 to 6 cycles. In the concurrent arm, 35 of 48 evaluable patients (73%; 95% confidence interval, 58%-85%) had a complete response. In the sequential arm, 29 of 53 evaluable patients (55%; 95% confidence interval, 41%-68%) had a complete response. The primary efficacy endpoint was met for the concurrent arm only. Toxicity was comparable in the 2 arms, although patients with a baseline CD4 count less than 50/microL had a high infectious death rate in the concurrent arm. We conclude that concurrent rituximab plus infusional EPOCH is an effective regimen for HIV-associated lymphoma.

AMC-070: Lenalidomide Is Safe and Effective in HIV-Associated Kaposi Sarcoma.

PURPOSE: Kaposi sarcoma (KS), an endothelial cell tumor associated with KS herpesvirus (KSHV), remains among the most common malignancies occurring with HIV infection (HIV-KS). As an oral anti-inflammatory, antiangiogenic, and immunomodulatory agent, lenalidomide is potentially an attractive alternative to standard chemotherapy for KS. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: The primary objectives of this phase I/II trial were to determine the maximum tolerated dose (MTD) and response rates for lenalidomide in HIV-KS. Secondary objectives included correlating response with natural killer (NK) and T-cell subsets, plasma cytokines, viral copy number, and KSHV gene expression in biopsies. Four dose levels of oral lenalidomide taken 21 consecutive days of 28-day cycles were evaluated in adults with HIV-KS on antiretroviral therapy with controlled viremia. RESULTS: Fifteen and 23 participants enrolled in phases I and II, respectively, 76% of whom had received prior KS therapy. The MTD was not reached, declaring 25 mg as the recommended phase II dose (RP2D). The most frequent adverse events were neutropenia, fatigue, leukopenia, and diarrhea. Of the 25 evaluable participants receiving RP2D, 60% responded. Correlative studies performed in a subset of participants demonstrated a significant increase in proportions of blood T cells with T-regulatory phenotype, and plasma cytokines trended toward a less inflammatory pattern. Clinical response was associated with loss of KSHV transcription. CONCLUSIONS: Lenalidomide is active in HIV-KS. The most common adverse events were manageable. With 60% of participants receiving RP2D obtaining a partial response and <10% discontinuing due to adverse events, the response and tolerability to lenalidomide support its use in HIV-KS. See related commentary by Henry and Maki, p. 2485.

Immune Recovery Following Autologous Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in HIV-Related Lymphoma Patients on the BMT CTN 0803/AMC 071 Trial.

We report a first in-depth comparison of immune reconstitution in patients with HIV-related lymphoma following autologous hematopoietic cell transplant (AHCT) recipients (n=37, lymphoma, BEAM conditioning), HIV(-) AHCT recipients (n=30, myeloma, melphalan conditioning) at 56, 180, and 365 days post-AHCT, and 71 healthy control subjects. Principal component analysis showed that immune cell composition in HIV(+) and HIV(-) AHCT recipients clustered away from healthy controls and from each other at each time point, but approached healthy controls over time. Unsupervised feature importance score analysis identified activated T cells, cytotoxic memory and effector T cells [higher in HIV(+)], and naïve and memory T helper cells [lower HIV(+)] as a having a significant impact on differences between HIV(+) AHCT recipient and healthy control lymphocyte composition (p<0.0033). HIV(+) AHCT recipients also demonstrated lower median absolute numbers of activated B cells and lower NK cell sub-populations, compared to healthy controls (p<0.0033) and HIV(-) AHCT recipients (p<0.006). HIV(+) patient T cells showed robust IFNγ production in response to HIV and EBV recall antigens. Overall, HIV(+) AHCT recipients, but not HIV(-) AHCT recipients, exhibited reconstitution of pro-inflammatory immune profiling that was consistent with that seen in patients with chronic HIV infection treated with antiretroviral regimens. Our results further support the use of AHCT in HIV(+) individuals with relapsed/refractory lymphoma.

Time for oncologists to opt in for routine opt-out HIV testing?

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected individuals are at high risk of malignancies. However, it is not currently the standard of care to routinely test cancer patients for HIV. In 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommended HIV testing in all health care settings, calling for standard nontargeted "opt-out" HIV screening. For a variety of reasons, routine opt-out HIV testing is still not widely used in the United States. Although many barriers to routine opt-out HIV testing have been addressed, such opt-out HIV testing continues to be conducted primarily in venues that target specific patient populations such as pregnant women. Although opt-out testing has been piloted in emergency departments, less emphasis has been placed on opt-out HIV testing in other clinical settings. In this article, the background, rationale, and evidence for supporting opt-out HIV testing as routine care for cancer patients are presented. In addition, evidence is discussed for the potential of opt-out HIV testing to improve clinical outcomes by facilitating appropriate HIV management during cancer treatment for individuals who are found to be HIV positive.

Pilot Trial AMC-063: Safety and Efficacy of Bortezomib in AIDS-associated Kaposi Sarcoma.

PURPOSE: AIDS-related Kaposi sarcoma is often incompletely controlled, requiring serial therapies. Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV) induces transformation of endothelial cells, where it resides in a predominately latent state. We hypothesized proteasome inhibition would have direct antitumor activity, induce lytic activation of KSHV, and inhibit HIV infectivity, improving control of both Kaposi sarcoma and HIV. The primary objective was determining the MTD of bortezomib in AIDS-Kaposi sarcoma. Secondary objectives included estimating the impact of bortezomib on Kaposi sarcoma response, KSHV plasma DNA copy number (PDCN), and HIV viral loads (VL). PATIENTS AND METHODS: A 3+3 dose escalation design was employed evaluating four dose levels of bortezomib (0.75, 1, 1.2, or 1.6 mg/m2) administered intravenously on days 1, 8, and 15 of 28-day cycles in patients with relapsed/refractory (r/r) AIDS-Kaposi sarcoma taking antiretroviral therapy. RESULTS: Seventeen patients enrolled. No dose-limiting toxicities occurred and the MTD was not reached. The most common adverse events included diarrhea, fatigue and nausea. Among 15 evaluable patients, partial response (PR) occurred in nine (60%), with a PR rate of 83% in the 1.6 mg/m2 cohort; the remainder had stable disease (SD). Median time to response was 2.1 months. Median change in KSHV PDCN was significantly different between those with PR versus SD. During cycle 1, seven of 11 evaluable patients had decreases in HIV VL. CONCLUSIONS: Bortezomib is well-tolerated and active in AIDS-Kaposi sarcoma. The 60% PR rate is notable given the dose-finding nature of the study in a r/r population. Changes in KSHV PDCN and HIV VL trended as hypothesized.

Molecular and clinical assessment in the treatment of AIDS Kaposi sarcoma with valproic Acid.

The AIDS Malignancy Consortium undertook a pilot trial of valproic acid among patients with AIDS-associated Kaposi sarcoma (KS). Treatment was associated with low toxicity, but the KS clinical response and KS herpesvirus lytic induction rates were not sufficiently high to meet predefined criteria for efficacy.

Dose-reduced busulfan, cyclophosphamide, and autologous stem cell transplantation for human immunodeficiency virus-associated lymphoma: AIDS Malignancy Consortium study 020.

Intensive chemotherapy for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-associated non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) and Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) has resulted in durable remissions in a substantial proportion of patients. High-dose chemotherapy and autologous stem cell transplantation (AuSCT), moreover, has resulted in sustained complete remissions in selected patients with recurrent chemosensitive disease. Based on a favorable experience with dose-reduced high-dose busulfan, cyclophosphamide, and AuSCT for older patients with non-HIV-associated aggressive lymphomas, an AIDS Malignancy Consortium multicenter trial was undertaken using the same dose-reduced busulfan and cyclophosphamide preparative regimen with AuSCT for recurrent HIV-associated NHL and HL. Of the 27 patients in the study, 20 received an AuSCT. The median time to achievement of an absolute neutrophil count (ANC) of >or= 0.5 x 10(9)/L was 11 days (range, 9-16 days). The median time to achievement of an unsupported platelet count of >or= 20 x 10(9)/L was 13 days (range, 6-57 days). One patient died on day +33 posttransplantation from hepatic veno-occlusive disease (VOD) and multiorgan failure. No other fatal regimen-related toxicity occurred. Ten of 19 patients (53%) were in complete remission at the time of their day +100 post-AuSCT evaluation. Of the 20 patients, 10 were alive and event-free at a median of 23 weeks post-AuSCT. Median overall survival (OS) was not reached by 13 of the 20 patients alive at the time of last follow-up. This multi-institutional trial demonstrates that a regimen of dose-reduced high-dose busulfan, cyclophosphamide, and AuSCT is well tolerated and is associated with favorable disease-free survival (DFS) and OS probabilities for selected patients with HIV-associated NHL and HL.

Safety and efficacy of an oncolytic viral strategy using bortezomib with ICE/R in relapsed/refractory HIV-positive lymphomas.

HIV-associated lymphomas (HALs) have high rates of latent infection by gammaherpesviruses (GHVs). We hypothesized that proteasome inhibition would induce lytic activation of GHVs and inhibit HIV infectivity via preservation of cytidine deaminase APOBEC3G, improving lymphoma control. We tested this oncolytic and antiviral strategy by using bortezomib combined with ifosfamide, carboplatin, and etoposide (ICE) alone or with rituximab (ICE/R) in relapsed/refractory HAL. A 3+3 dose-escalation design was used with a 7-day lead-in period of single-agent bortezomib. Bortezomib was administered intravenously on days 1 and 8 of each cycle at 1 of 4 dose levels: 0.7, 1.0, 1.3, or 1.5 mg/m2 ICE began day 8 of cycle 1 and day 1 of subsequent cycles. Rituximab was included on day 1 of cycles 2 to 6 for CD20+ lymphomas. Twenty-three patients were enrolled. The maximum tolerated dose of bortezomib was not reached. Grade 4 toxicities attributable to bortezomib were limited to myelosuppression. Responses occurred in 17 (77%) of 22 patients receiving any protocol therapy. The 1-year overall survival was 57%. After bortezomib alone, both patients with Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV)-positive lymphoma had more than a 1-log increase in KSHV viral load. In 12 patients with Epstein-Barr virus (EBV)-positive lymphoma, median values of EBV viral load increased. Undetectable HIV viremia at baseline in the majority of patients limited evaluation of HIV inhibition. APOBEC3G levels increased in 75% of evaluable patients. Bortezomib combined with ICE/R in patients with relapsed/refractory HAL is feasible with response and survival comparing favorably against previously reported second-line therapies. Changes in GHV viral loads and APOBEC3G levels trended as hypothesized. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT00598169.

Cetuximab Plus Chemoradiotherapy for HIV-Associated Anal Carcinoma: A Phase II AIDS Malignancy Consortium Trial.

Purpose Squamous cell carcinoma of the anal canal (SCCAC) is characterized by high locoregional failure (LRF) rates after definitive chemoradiation (CRT), associated with anogenital human papilloma virus, and often appears in HIV infection. Because cetuximab enhances the effect of radiation therapy in human papilloma virus-associated oropharyngeal SCC, we hypothesized that adding cetuximab to CRT would reduce LRF in SCCAC. Methods Forty-five patients with stage I to III SCCAC and HIV infection received CRT: 45 to 54 Gy radiation therapy to the primary tumor and regional lymph nodes plus eight once-weekly doses of concurrent cetuximab and two cycles of cisplatin and fluorouracil. The study was designed to detect at least a 50% reduction in 3-year LRF rate (one-sided α, 0.10; power, 90%), assuming a 35% LRF rate from historical data. Results The 3-year LRF rate was 42% (95% CI, 28% to 56%; one-sided P = .9) by binomial proportional estimate using the prespecified end point (LRF or alive without LRF and followed < 3 years), and 20% (95% CI, 10% to 37%) by Kaplan-Meier estimate in post hoc analysis using definitions and methods consistent with historical data. Three-year rates by Kaplan-Meier estimate were 72% (95% CI, 56% to 84%) for progression-free survival and 79% (95% CI, 63% to 89%) for overall survival. Grade 4 toxicity occurred in 26%, and 4% had treatment-associated deaths. Conclusion HIV-associated SCCAC is potentially curable with definitive CRT. Although addition of cetuximab may result in less LRF, the 20% recurrence and 26% grade 4 toxicity rates indicate the continued need for more-effective and less-toxic therapies.

Cell cycle alterations in the blastoid variant of mantle cell lymphoma (MCL-BV) as detected by gene expression profiling of mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) and MCL-BV.

Overexpression of cyclin D1 is necessary but by itself insufficient for the development of mantle cell lymphoma (MCL). To identify pathways in the pathogenesis of MCL and the blastoid variant (MLC-BV), we compared the gene-expression profiles of microdissected normal mantle cells, MCL, and MCL-BV by oligonucleotide microarrays and quantitative reverse transcriptase PCR (QRT-PCR). We identified and confirmed the overexpression of several genes in MCL-BV that are involved in the cell cycle control at the G1/S and G2/M checkpoints or inhibit apoptotic cell death. The highly expressed cyclin dependent kinase 4 (CDK4) is a cell cycle kinase that associates with cyclin D1 for the progression through the G1/S checkpoint, whereas overexpression of cdc28 protein kinase 1 (CKS1) blocks the inhibition of the cyclin D1/CDK4 complex by the CDK inhibitor p27/Kip1. Other highly expressed genes in MCL-BV that promote the cells through the G1/S-checkpoint include the oncogenes B-Myb, PIM1, and PIM2, and passage through the G2/M-checkpoint is enhanced by high levels of cdc25B. Furthermore, two highly expressed genes that inhibit apoptosis are defender against cell death (DAD1) and RSK1. In summary, our microarray and QRT-PCR analyses identified several candidate genes whose expression increased when comparing normal follicular mantles with MCL and MCLBV, suggesting a potential pathogenic role in the evolution of MCL-BV.

Correlation of transcriptional repression by p21(SNFT) with changes in DNA.NF-AT complex interactions.

p21(SNFT) (21-kDa small nuclear factor isolated from T cells) is a novel human protein of the basic leucine zipper family. The overexpression of p21(SNFT) leads to the significant and specific repression of transcription from the interleukin-2 promoter as well as from several essential activator protein 1 (AP-1)-driven composite promoter elements. One example is the distal nuclear factor of activated T cells (NF-AT)/AP-1 element where the AP-1 (Fos/Jun) basic leucine zipper heterodimer interacts with members of the NF-AT family. p21(SNFT) has been shown to replace Fos in dimerization with Jun on a consensus AP-1 binding site (12-O-tetradecanolyphorbol-13-acetate response element (TRE)) and to interact with Jun and NF-AT at the distal NF-AT/AP-1 enhancer element. A detailed biochemical analysis presented here compares interactions involving p21(SNFT) with those involving Fos. The results demonstrate that a p21(SNFT)/Jun dimer binds a TRE similarly to AP-1 and like AP-1 binds cooperatively with NF-AT at the NF-AT/AP-1 composite element. However, Fos interacts significantly more efficiently than p21(SNFT) with Jun and NF-AT, and the replacement of Fos by p21(SNFT) in the trimolecular complex drastically alters protein-DNA contacts. The data suggest that p21(SNFT) may repress transcriptional activity by inducing a unique conformation in the transcription factor complex.

Characterization of gene expression of CD34+ cells from normal and myelodysplastic bone marrow.

Gene patterns of expression in purified CD34(+) bone marrow cells from 7 patients with low-risk myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) and 4 patients with high-risk MDS were compared with expression data from CD34(+) bone marrow cells from 4 healthy control subjects. CD34(+) cells were isolated by magnetic cell separation, and high-density oligonucleotide microarray analysis was performed. For confirmation, the expression of selected genes was analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction. Class membership prediction analysis selected 11 genes. Using the expression profile of these genes, we were able to discriminate patients with low-risk from patients with high-risk MDS and both patient groups from the control group by hierarchical clustering (Spearman confidence). The power of these 11 genes was verified by applying the algorithm to an unknown test set containing expression data from 8 additional patients with MDS (3 at low risk, 5 at high risk). Patients at low risk could be distinguished from those at high risk by clustering analysis. In low-risk MDS, we found that the retinoic-acid-induced gene (RAI3), the radiation-inducible, immediate-early response gene (IEX1), and the stress-induced phosphoprotein 1 (STIP1) were down-regulated. These data suggest that CD34(+) cells from patients with low-risk MDS lack defensive proteins, resulting in their susceptibility to cell damage. In summary, we propose that gene expression profiling may have clinical relevance for risk evaluation in MDS at the time of initial diagnosis. Furthermore, this study provides evidence that in MDS, hematopoietic stem cells accumulate defects that prevent normal hematopoiesis.

Gene expression profile of serial samples of transformed B-cell lymphomas.

Follicular lymphoma (FL) is characterized by a continuous rate of relapse and transformation to a high-grade lymphoma, usually diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), associated with a dismal prognosis and a poor response to conventional chemotherapy. The progression of indolent to aggressive FL is accompanied by the successive accumulation of recurrent chromosomal defects, but the resultant alterations of gene expression are largely unknown. To expand the understanding of the pathogenesis of FL transformation, we initially performed oligonucleotide microarray analyses using Affymetrix HuFL chips on five cases with matched snap-frozen lymph nodes before and after transformation. Expression data were analyzed using the Affymetrix Microarray Suite 4.0 and Genespring 4.0. Thirty-six genes with increased expression and 66 genes with decreased expression associated with transformation were identified and functionally classified. The expression of differentially expressed genes was confirmed by real-time quantitative RT-PCR (QRT-PCR) using a total of seven matched pairs and an additional five FL and five unrelated DLBCL. In addition, selected genes were further analyzed by QRT-PCR or immunohistochemistry using a large, unrelated series of FL (grades 1 to 3) as well as transformed and de novo DLBCL (total of 51 samples). The microarray results correlated with the protein expression data obtained from samples at the time of initial diagnosis and transformation. Furthermore, the expression of 25 candidate genes was evaluated by QRT-PCR with a 78% confirmation rate. Some of the identified genes, such as nucleobindin, interferon regulatory factor 4, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1, are already known to be associated with high-grade non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. Novel candidate genes with confirmed increased and decreased expression in transformed DLBCL include ABL2 and NEK2, and PDCD1 and VDUP1, respectively. In summary, this study shows that transformation of FL to DLBCL is associated with a distinct set of differentially expressed genes of potential functional importance.

In silico dissection of cell-type-associated patterns of gene expression in prostate cancer.

Prostate tumors are complex entities composed of malignant cells mixed and interacting with nonmalignant cells. However, molecular analyses by standard gene expression profiling are limited because spatial information and nontumor cell types are lost in sample preparation. We scored 88 prostate specimens for relative content of tumor, benign hyperplastic epithelium, stroma, and dilated cystic glands. The proportions of these cell types were then linked in silico to gene expression levels determined by microarray analysis, revealing unique cell-specific profiles. Gene expression differences for malignant and nonmalignant epithelial cells (tumor versus benign hyperplastic epithelium) could be identified without being confounded by contributions from stroma that dominate many samples or sacrificing possible paracrine influences. Cell-specific expression of selected genes was validated by immunohistochemistry and quantitative PCR. The results provide patterns of gene expression for these three lineages with relevance to pathogenetic, diagnostic, and therapeutic considerations.

Identifying progression-associated genes in adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma by using oligonucleotide microarrays.

Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) is associated with human T-lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1). To understand the changes in expression that occur in the progression of chronic phase of ATL to acute crisis, the gene expression profiles of fresh ATL cells were compared in 4 pairs of samples (progression of chronic to acute phase in 3 patients, as well as 1 typical chronic phase sample vs. 1 typical acute phase sample) using high-density oligonucleotide DNA arrays. We identified 203 genes that were commonly upregulated in acute vs. chronic phase samples including ribosomal proteins, proteosome subunits, eukaryotic translation factors, immunophilins, heat shock proteins and genes important for DNA replication. Additionally, we identified 91 commonly downregulated genes including immune molecules related to MHC and a phosphatase. Several of the genes were previously identified to be associated with the Tax protein of HTLV-1. Some of the upregulated genes were located in amplified regions identified by comparative genomic hybridization in the corresponding chronic/acute ATL sample. Using real-time quantitative PCR, we confirmed the array-results in those specimens analyzed by microarray. These results demonstrated that distinct sets of genes that are known to be critical in cellular transformation and/or activation are up- or down-regulated during the transition to the acute phase of ATL.