An Intelligent Laser-Free Photodynamic Therapy Based on Endogenous miRNA-Amplified CRET Nanoplatform.

Laser-free photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a promising noninvasive therapeutic modality for deep-seated tumor, yet is constrained by low efficiency due to the limited stimulation strategies. Herein, a novel miRNA-responsive laser-free PDT was developed through metal-organic frameworks (MOFs)-mediated chemiluminescence resonance energy transfer (CRET) nanoplatform. The photosensitizer chlorin e6 (Ce6)-loaded MOFs were functionalized with hairpin nucleic acids for sensitive responsiveness of tumor biomarker miRNA through catalytic hairpin assembly (CHA), which enabled the amplified assembly of horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-mimicking hemin/G-quadruplex DNAzyme on MOFs. Simultaneously, the on-MOF assembled DNAzymes efficiently catalyzed chemiluminescence reaction to stimulate adjacent Ce6 in the presence of luminol and H2 O2 , thus allowing the CRET-mediated Ce6 luminescence and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation for self-illuminating PDT. The CRET nanoplatform achieved significant malignant cell apoptosis and tumor inhibition effects without external laser irradiation. It is envisioned that the miRNA-amplified CRET nanoplatform might be a selective and highly efficient antitumor nanomedicine for precise theranostic.

Ferroptosis: action and mechanism of chemical/drug-induced liver injury.

Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is characterized by hepatocyte injury, cholestasis injury, and mixed injury. The liver transplantation is required for serious clinical outcomes such as acute liver failure. Current studies have found that many mechanisms were involved in DILI, such as mitochondrial oxidative stress, apoptosis, necroptosis, autophagy, ferroptosis, etc. Ferroptosis occurs when hepatocytes die from iron-dependent lipid peroxidation and plays a key role in DILI. After entry into the liver, where some drugs or chemicals are metabolized, they convert into hepatotoxic substances, consume reduced glutathione (GSH), and decrease the reductive capacity of GSH-dependent GPX4, leading to redox imbalance in hepatocytes and increase of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation level, leading to the undermining of hepatocytes; some drugs facilitated the autophagy of ferritin, orchestrating the increased ion level and ferroptosis. The purpose of this review is to summarize the role of ferroptosis in chemical- or drug-induced liver injury (chemical/DILI) and how natural products inhibit ferroptosis to prevent chemical/DILI.

Phenotypical microRNA screen reveals a noncanonical role of CDK2 in regulating neutrophil migration.

Neutrophil migration is essential for inflammatory responses to kill pathogens; however, excessive neutrophilic inflammation also leads to tissue injury and adverse effects. To discover novel therapeutic targets that modulate neutrophil migration, we performed a neutrophil-specific microRNA (miRNA) overexpression screen in zebrafish and identified 8 miRNAs as potent suppressors of neutrophil migration. Among those, miR-199 decreases neutrophil chemotaxis in zebrafish and human neutrophil-like cells. Intriguingly, in terminally differentiated neutrophils, miR-199 alters the cell cycle-related pathways and directly suppresses cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (Cdk2), whose known activity is restricted to cell cycle progression and cell differentiation. Inhibiting Cdk2, but not DNA replication, disrupts cell polarity and chemotaxis of zebrafish neutrophils without inducing cell death. Human neutrophil-like cells deficient in CDK2 fail to polarize and display altered signaling downstream of the formyl peptide receptor. Chemotaxis of primary human neutrophils is also reduced upon CDK2 inhibition. Furthermore, miR-199 overexpression or CDK2 inhibition significantly improves the outcome of lethal systemic inflammation challenges in zebrafish. Our results therefore reveal previously unknown functions of miR-199 and CDK2 in regulating neutrophil migration and provide directions in alleviating systemic inflammation.

VPS-22/SNF8 regulates longevity via modulating the activity of DAF-16 in C. elegans.

Aging is regulated by complex signaling networks, the details of which remain poorly understood. Here, we demonstrate that VPS-22/SNF8, a component of endosomal sorting complex required for transport-II (ESCRT-II), regulates the lifespan of C. elegans. In this study we show that worms with vps-22/snf8 gene knockdown had a shorter lifespan than wild-type worms. The expression pattern of VPS-22/SNF8 in C. elegans was highly similar to that of DAF-16. Knockout of daf-16 in C. elegans shortened the worms' lifespan; however, reducing the expression of vps-22/snf8 in daf-16 null worms did not further shorten their lifespan, indicating that vps-22/snf8 and daf-16 may act in the same signaling pathway to regulate longevity. Over-expression of daf-16 rescued the short-lived phenotype of vps-22/snf8 knockdown worms. Moreover, down-regulation of vps-22/snf8 decreased the nuclear localization of DAF-16 and modulated the expression of daf-16 downstream genes that regulate longevity in C. elegans. In summary, our results indicate that vps-22/snf8 can regulate the longevity of C. elegans by partially modulating the activity of daf-16. These findings may help us to better understand the mechanisms of aging.

Temporal modulation of host aerobic glycolysis determines the outcome of Mycobacterium marinum infection.

Macrophages are the first-line host defense that the invading Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) encounters. It has been recently reported that host aerobic glycolysis was elevated post the infection by a couple of virulent mycobacterial species. However, whether this metabolic transition is required for host defense against intracellular pathogens and the underlying mechanisms remain to be further investigated. A pathogenic mycobacterial species, M. marinum, is genetically close to Mtb and was utilized in this study. Through analyzing cellular carbon metabolism of RAW 264.7 (a murine macrophage-like cell line) post M. marinum infection, a strong elevation of glycolysis was observed. Next, three glycolysis inhibitors were examined for their ability to inhibit mycobacterial proliferation inside RAW264.7 macrophages. Among them, a glucose analog, 2-deoxyglucose (2-DG) displayed a protective role against mycobacterial infection. Treatment with 2-DG at concentrations of 0.5 or 1 mM significantly induced autophagy and decreased the phagocytosis of M. marinum by macrophages. Moreover, 2-DG pre-treatment exerted a significantly protective effect on zebrafish larvae by limiting the proliferation of M. marinum, and such effect was correlated to tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) as the 2-DG pre-treatment increased the expression of TNF-α in both mouse peritoneal macrophages and zebrafish. On the contrary, the 2-DG treatment post infection did not restrain proliferation of M. marinum in WT zebrafish, and even accelerated bacterial replication in TNF-α-/- zebrafish. Together, modulation of glycolysis prior to infection boosts host immunity against M. marinum infection, indicating a potential intervention strategy to control mycobacterial infection.

Clinical and radiological subsequent fractures after vertebral augmentation for treating osteoporotic vertebral compression fractures: a meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to identify all relevant randomized controlled trials (RCT) and prospective non-RCTs to further investigate whether percutaneous vertebral augmentation (PVA) was associated with clinical and radiological subsequent fractures on unoperated levels. METHODS: We systematically searched PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane library, Google Scholar, web of science, and ClinicalTrial.gov from the establishment of the database to January 2020. All eligible studies comparing subsequent fractures after PVA with those after conservative treatment (CT) were incorporated. The pooled risk ratio (RR) with its 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) was used. Heterogeneity, sensitivity, and publication bias analyses were performed. RESULTS: In all, 32 studies were included in the study: 82/512 patients (16.02%) and 58/433 patients (13.39%) had clinical subsequent fractures in the PVA group and CT group, respectively. No significant differences were observed between the two groups [RR = 1.22, 95% CI 0.70-2.12, P = 0.49]. Further, 175/837 patients (20.91%) in the PVA group and 160/828 patients (19.32%) in the CT group had radiological subsequent fractures. No significant difference was observed between groups [RR = 0.91, 95% CI 0.71-2.12, P = 1.16]. Further, no statistical difference was observed on subgroup analysis between RCTs and non-RCTs or PVP and PKP. CONCLUSION: Our systematic review revealed that subsequent fractures on unoperated levels were not associated with PVA, regardless of whether they were clinical or radiological subsequent fractures.

Protective effects of rabbit sacculus-derived antimicrobial peptides on SPF chicken against infection with very virulent infectious bursal disease virus.

Previous studies here have demonstrated that the rabbit sacculus rotundus-derived antimicrobial peptides (RSRP) could alter the intestinal mucosal immune responses in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) chickens, however, the protective effects of RSRP on chickens against infection remain questionable. In the present study, eighty SPF chickens were randomly divided into five groups and challenged with very virulent infectious bursal disease virus (vvIBDV) to determine the protective effects and its underlying mechanism of RSRP. Histopathology examination found that vvIBDV-infection caused severe damage in the bursa of Fabricius, especially the bursal lymphoid follicles underwent severe necrosis, depletion, hemorrhage, and edema. Unexpectedly, RSRP intervention significantly reduced the necrosis and depletion of lymphoid follicles in the vvIBDV-infected chickens. Moreover, RSRP treatment significantly decreased the expression of Bax (P < 0.01) as well as remarkably promoted the expression of Bcl-2 (P < 0.01), concomitantly alleviated the excessive apoptosis in the immune organs such as the bursa of Fabricius during vvIBDV infection. Notably, consistent with our previous reports that increased mast cell activation and degranulation in the bursa after vvIBDV infection, RSRP administration considerably reduced the mast cell density and the expression of tryptase, a marker for activated mast cells. Collectively, the present study indicates that rabbit sacculus rotundus-derived antimicrobial peptides could effectively protect the major immune organs including the bursa of Fabricius from the damage caused by vvIBDV infection, which provides the possibility and a promising perspective for the future application of antimicrobial peptides for poultry production.

Breaking CHIPS-Mediated immune evasion with tripterin to promote neutrophil chemotaxis against MRSA infection.

Neutrophils are the most important innate immune cells in host defense against methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA). However, MRSA orchestrates precise and timely expression of a series of virulence factors, especially the chemotaxis inhibitory protein of Staphylococcus aureus (CHIPS), to evade neutrophil-mediated host defenses. Here, we demonstrated that tripterin, a plant-derived bioactive pentacyclic triterpenoid, had a low minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 1.28 µg/mL and displayed excellent anti-MRSA activity in vitro and in vivo. RNA-seq and further knockdown experiments revealed that tripterin could dramatically downregulate the expression of CHIPS by regulating the SaeRS two-component regulatory system, thereby enhancing the chemotactic response of neutrophils. Furthermore, tripterin also displayed a potential inhibitory effect on biofilm components to enhance neutrophil infiltration into the interior of the biofilm. In a mouse bacteremia model, tripterin could still maintain an excellent therapeutic effect that was significantly better than that of the traditional antibiotic vancomycin. Overall, these results suggest that tripterin possesses a superior antibacterial activity via breaking CHIPS-mediated immune evasion to promote neutrophil chemotaxis, thus providing a novel strategy for combating serious pathogenic infections.

Effects of triaxial rolling on the microstructure and installation characteristics of reactor pressure vessel studs.

Reactor pressure vessel (RPV) studs are key components of nuclear reactors, and their connection with flange ensures the sealing of the RPV under high-pressure and high-temperature conditions. In the present work, the external threads of the RPV stud were prepared by triaxial rolling, and the texture evolution of the external thread root material of an RPV stud was predicted by finite element analysis coupled with viscoplastic self-consistent simulations. The microstructure of the external thread root material of RPV stud was characterized by scanning electron microscope and electron back-scattered diffraction. The installation characteristics of the turned and rolled parts of the RPV stud were tested by installation and pretightening tests. It was found that the dynamic recrystallization at the external thread root formed ultrafine tempered sorbite grains, high-angle grain boundaries (47%), and strong {111} <110> and {111} <112> textures. In the installation and pretightening test, the residual elongation of rolled parts was reduced by 6% under the same loading pressure. The triaxial rolling process distributed the microstructure of the external thread root of the RPV stud in a gradient manner, resulting in improved stud installation characteristics.

Blood-Catalyzed Polymerization Creates Conductive Polymer in Live Zebrafish.

Conducting polymers are of great interest in bioimaging, bio-interfaces, and bioelectronics for their biocompatibility and the unique combination of optical, electrical, and mechanical properties. They are typically prepared outside through traditional organic synthesis and delivered into the biological systems. The ability to call for the polymerization ingredients available inside the living systems to generate conducting polymers in vivo will offer new venues in future biomedical applications. This study is the first report of in vivo synthesis of an n-doped conducting polymer (n-PBDF) within live zebrafish embryos, achieved through whole blood catalyzed polymerization of 3,7-dihydrobenzo[1,2-b:4,5-b']difuran-2,6-dione (BDF). Prior to this, the efficacy of such a polymerization was rigorously established through a sequence of in vitro experiments involving Hemin, Hemoproteins (Hemoglobin, Myoglobin, and Cytochrome C), red blood cells, and the whole blood. Ultimately, in cellulo formed n-PBDF within cultured primary neurons demonstrated enhanced bio-interfaces and led to more effective light-induced neural activation than the prefabricated polymer. This underscores the potential advantages of synthesizing conducting polymers directly in living systems for biomedical applications.

Genomic surveillance and evolutionary dynamics of type 2 porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus in China spanning the African swine fever outbreak.

Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) poses a serious threat to the pig industry in China. Our previous study demonstrated that PRRSV persists with local circulations and overseas imports in China and has formed a relatively stable epidemic pattern. However, the sudden African swine fever (ASF) outbreak in 2018 caused serious damage to China's pig industry structure, which resulted in about 40 per cent of pigs being slaughtered. The pig yields recovered by the end of 2019. Thus, whether the ASF outbreak reframed PRRSV evolution with changes in pig populations and further posed new threats to the pig industry becomes a matter of concern. For this purpose, we conducted genomic surveillance and recombination, NSP2 polymorphism, population dynamics, and geographical spread analysis of PRRSV-2, which is dominant in China. The results showed that the prevalence of ASF had no significant effects on genetic diversities like lineage composition, recombination patterns, and NSP2 insertion and deletion patterns but was likely to lead to changes in PRRSV-2 recombination frequency. As for circulation of the two major sub-lineages of Lineage 1, there was no apparent transmission of NADC30-like among provinces, while NADC34-like had obvious signs of inter-provincial transmission and foreign importation during the ASF epidemic. In addition, two suspected vaccine recombinant epidemic strains suggest a slight safety issue of vaccine use. Herein, the interference of ASF to the PRRSV-2 evolutionary pattern was evaluated and vaccine safety was analyzed, in order to monitor the potential threat of PRRSV-2 to China's pig industry in the post-epidemic era of ASF.

The causality between gut microbiome and chronic regional pain: a Mendelian randomization analysis.

Background: Numerous investigations have underscored the causal effect between chronic pain (CP) and gut microbiota, jointly contributing to the onset and development of widespread CP. Nonetheless, there was still uncertainty about the causal effect between gut microbiota and chronic regional pain (CRP). Methods: Genome-wide association study (GWAS) summary data of gut microbial taxa (MiBioGen Consortium: 211 microbiotas and the Dutch Microbiome Project: 207 microbiotas) and eight types of CRP were used to reveal the causal effect between persistent pain in a specific region of the body and gut microbiota. A two-sample bidirectional Mendelian randomization (MR) design was used. In order to ensure the accuracy of the results, multiple sensitivity analyses were employed. Results: This study uncovered significant causal associations between six gut microbial taxa and three types of CRP (forward: Genus Parabacteroides for general pain; Class Bacteroidia, Order Bacteroidales, and Phylum Bacteroidetes for back pain. Reverse: knee pain for Genus Howardella and Order Coriobacteriales) by forward and reverse MR analysis. These findings had been verified by a rigorous Bonferroni correction. Furthermore, this research identified 19 microbial taxa that exhibited potential correlations with four types of CRP. There are no significant or potential gut microbiotas that were associated with other types of CRP, including fascial pain, stomach or abdominal pain, and hip pain. Conclusion: This two-sample bidirectional MR analysis unveiled the causality between gut microbial taxa and eight CRP conditions. The findings reveal the interplay between CRP and 6 gut microbiotas while also delineating 19 potential specific microbial taxa corresponding to diverse locations of persistent pain.

High performance artificial visual perception and recognition with a plasmon-enhanced 2D material neural network.

The development of neuromorphic visual systems has recently gained momentum due to their potential in areas such as autonomous vehicles and robotics. However, current machine visual systems based on silicon technology usually contain photosensor arrays, format conversion, memory and processing modules. As a result, the redundant data shuttling between each unit, resulting in large latency and high-power consumption, seriously limits the performance of neuromorphic vision chips. Here, we demonstrate an artificial neural network (ANN) architecture based on an integrated 2D MoS2/Ag nanograting phototransistor array, which can simultaneously sense, pre-process and recognize optical images without latency. The pre-processing function of the device under photoelectric synergy ensures considerable improvement of efficiency and accuracy of subsequent image recognition. The comprehensive performance of the proof-of-concept device demonstrates great potential for machine vision applications in terms of large dynamic range (180 dB), high speed (500 ns) and low energy consumption per spike (2.4 × 10-17 J).

IFT27 regulates the long-term maintenance of photoreceptor outer segments in zebrafish.

Approximately a quarter of Retinitis Pigmentosa (RP) is caused by mutations in transport-related genes in cilia. IFT27 (Intraflagellar Transport 27), a core component of the ciliary intraflagellar transport (IFT) system, has been implicated as a significant pathogenic gene in RP. The pathogenic mechanisms and subsequent pathology related to IFT27 mutations in RP are largely obscure. Here, we utilized TALEN technology to create an ift27 knockout (ift27-/-) zebrafish model. Electroretinography (ERG) detection showed impaired vision in this model. Histopathological examinations disclosed that ift27 mutations cause progressive degeneration of photoreceptors in zebrafish, and this degeneration was late-onset. Immunofluorescence labeling of outer segments showed that rods degenerated before cones, aligning with the conventional characterization of RP. In cultured human retinal pigment epithelial cells, we found that IFT27 was involved in maintaining ciliary morphology. Furthermore, decreased IFT27 expression resulted in the inhibition of the Hedgehog (Hh) signaling pathway, including decreased expression of key factors in the Hh pathway and abnormal localization of the ciliary mediator Gli2. In summary, we generated an ift27-/- zebrafish line with retinal degeneration which mimicked the symptoms of RP patients, highlighting IFT27's integral role in the long-term maintenance of cilia via the Hh signaling pathway. This work may furnish new insights into the treatment or delay of RP caused by IFT27 mutations.

IQGAP1 domesticates macrophages to favor mycobacteria survival via modulating NF-κB signal and augmenting VEGF secretion.

Tuberculosis, caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), still ranks among the leading causes of annual human death by infectious disease. Mtb has developed several strategies to survive for years at a time within the host despite the presence of a robust immune response, including manipulating the progression of the inflammatory response and forming granulomatous lesions. Here we demonstrate that IQGAP1, a highly conserved scaffolding protein, compartmentalizes and coordinates multiple signaling pathways in macrophages infected with Mycobacterium marinum (Mm or M.marinum), the closest relative of Mtb. Upregulated IQGAP1 ultimately suppresses TNF-α production by repressing the MKK3 signal and reducing NF-κBp65 translocation, deactivating the p38MAPK pathway. Accordingly, IQGAP1 silencing and overexpression significantly alter p38MAPK activity by modulating the production of phosphorylated MKK3 during mycobacterial infection. Pharmacological inhibition of IQGAP1-associated microtubule assembly not only alleviates tissue damage caused by M.marinum infection but also significantly decreases the production of VEGF-a critical player for granuloma-associated angiogenesis during pathogenic mycobacterial infection. Similarly, IQGAP1 silencing in Mm-infected macrophages diminishes VEGF production, while IQGAP1 overexpression upregulates VEGF. Our data indicate that mycobacteria induce IQGAP1 to hijack NF-κBp65 activation, preventing the expression of proinflammatory cytokines as well as promoting VEGF production during infection and granuloma formation. Thus, therapies targeting host IQGAP1 may be a promising strategy for treating tuberculosis, particularly in drug-resistant diseases.

Pathogenic mycobacterium upregulates cholesterol 25-hydroxylase to promote granuloma development via foam cell formation.

Pathogenic mycobacteria orchestrate the complex cell populations known as granuloma that is the hallmark of tuberculosis. Foam cells, a lipid-rich cell-type, are considered critical for granuloma formation; however, the causative factor in foam cell formation remains unclear. Atherosclerosis is a chronic inflammatory disease characterized by the abundant accumulation of lipid-laden-macrophage-derived foam cells during which cholesterol 25-hydroxylase (CH25H) is crucial in foam cell formation. Here, we show that M. marinum (Mm), a relative of M. tuberculosis, induces foam cell formation, leading to granuloma development following CH25H upregulation. Moreover, the Mm-driven increase in CH25H expression is associated with the presence of phthiocerol dimycocerosate, a determinant for Mm virulence and integrity. CH25H-null mice showed decreased foam cell formation and attenuated pathology. Atorvastatin, a recommended first-line lipid-lowering drug, promoted the elimination of M. marinum and concomitantly reduced CH25H production. These results define a previously unknown role for CH25H in controlling macrophage-derived foam cell formation and Tuberculosis pathology.

Mycobacterial CpsA activates type I IFN signaling in macrophages via cGAS-mediated pathway.

Type I interferon (IFN) production is crucial in tuberculosis pathogenesis, yet the bacterial factors initiating this process are incompletely understood. CpsA, protein of Mycobacterium marinum and Mycobacterium tuberculosis, plays a key role in maintaining bacterial virulence and inhibiting host cell LC3-associated phagocytosis. By utilizing CpsA full deletion mutant studies, we re-verified its essential role in infection-induced pathology and revealed its new role in type I IFN expression. CpsA deficiency hindered IFN production in infected macrophages in vitro as well as zebrafish and mice in vivo. This effect was linked to the cGAS-TBK1-IRF3 pathway, as evidenced by decreased TBK1 and IRF3 phosphorylation in CpsA-deficient bacterial strain-infected macrophages. Moreover, we further show that CpsA deficiency cause decreased cytosolic DNA levels, correlating with impaired phagosomal membrane rupture. Our findings reveal a new function of mycobacterial CpsA in type I IFN production and offer insight into the molecular mechanisms underlying mycobacterial infection pathology.

PhoY2 of mycobacteria is required for metabolic homeostasis and stress response.

The ability of pathogenic mycobacteria to adapt to diverse environments is essential for their success as pathogens. Here we describe a transposon-inactivated phoY2 mutant of Mycobacterium marinum. PhoY2 of mycobacteria is a functional homologue of PhoU in Escherichia coli and an important component of the Pho regulon. We found that PhoY2 is required for maintaining intracellular inorganic phosphate (P(i)) homeostasis and balanced energy and redox states. Disruption of phoY2 resulted in elevated levels of intracellular poly-P(i) and ATP and an elevated NAD(+)/NADH ratio, and the mutant strain exhibited increased sensitivity to environmental stress conditions, including nutrient deprivation as well as SDS and antibiotic treatments. Taken together, our results suggest that PhoY2 is required for maintaining metabolic homeostasis and adaptation to stress conditions, which may provide an explanation for the suggested role of PhoY2 in drug tolerance.

Detection of intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes, goblet cells and secretory IgA in the intestinal mucosa during Newcastle disease virus infection.

Newcastle disease, which is caused by Newcastle disease virus (NDV), is a highly contagious viral disease of poultry and other bird species. The mucosa is the first line of defence to invading pathogens, including NDV, and it has been confirmed that the mucosa can contribute to host protection. This study was conducted to evaluate the intestinal mucosal immunology in NDV infection. Forty specific-pathogen-free chickens were divided into two groups, 20 birds in each group. Group 1 was inoculated with NDV by the intravenous route. Group 2 was used as the control group and was given sterile phosphate-buffered saline by the same route. At 24, 48, 72, and 96 h post infection (h.p.i.), five chickens from each treatment were killed. Samples of the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum were collected to quantify intestinal intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL), goblet cells and secretory IgA (sIgA) by cytochemistry and immunohistochemistry analysis. The results indicated that IEL were increased from 24 to 72 h.p.i. in the infected tissues, and were significantly higher than in the control group at 48 h.p.i. (P < 0.01). In contrast to IEL, goblet cell numbers were reduced dramatically from 24 to 96 h.p.i. in the infected birds (P < 0.01) Furthermore, the content of sIgA was significantly higher at 48 and 72 h.p.i. in the infected tissues (P < 0.01). sIgA positivity was observed in the epithelial lining of the intestinal mucosa. These data suggest that IEL, goblet cells, and sIgA were involved in the intestinal mucosal immunity against NDV infection.