RESUMEN
Surveys are quick and easy to produce. This paper outlines some of the many problems that should be anticipated.
RESUMEN
Surveys are quick and easy to produce. This paper outlines some of the many problems that should be anticipated.
Asunto(s)
Encuestas y Cuestionarios , HumanosRESUMEN
The essential principles of statistics as applied to surveys, studies, sampling, epidemiology, screening, and trials are described and explained.
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Estadística como Asunto , Ensayos Clínicos como Asunto , Epidemiología , Humanos , Tamizaje MasivoRESUMEN
All animal life on earth is thought to have a common origin and have common genetic mechanisms. Evolution has enabled differentiation of species. Pathogens likewise have evolved within various species and mostly come to a settled dynamic equilibrium such that co-existence results (pathogens ideally should not kill their hosts). Problems arise when pathogens jump species because the new host had not developed any resistance. These infections from related species are known as zoonoses. COVID-19 is the latest example of a virus entering another species but HIV (and various strains of influenza) were previous examples.
Asunto(s)
Brotes de Enfermedades/estadística & datos numéricos , Infecciones por VIH/transmisión , VIH-1/patogenicidad , Síndrome de Inmunodeficiencia Adquirida del Simio/transmisión , Virus de la Inmunodeficiencia de los Simios/patogenicidad , Zoonosis/transmisión , Animales , Betacoronavirus/genética , Betacoronavirus/patogenicidad , COVID-19 , Infecciones por Coronavirus/transmisión , Infecciones por Coronavirus/virología , Evolución Molecular , Infecciones por VIH/virología , VIH-1/genética , Humanos , Pandemias , Filogenia , Neumonía Viral/transmisión , Neumonía Viral/virología , Primates/virología , SARS-CoV-2 , Síndrome de Inmunodeficiencia Adquirida del Simio/virología , Virus de la Inmunodeficiencia de los Simios/genética , Zoonosis/virologíaRESUMEN
All animal life on earth is thought to have a common origin and have common genetic mechanisms. Evolution has enabled differentiation of species. Pathogens likewise have evolved within various species and mostly come to a settled dynamic equilibrium such that co-existence results (pathogens ideally should not kill their hosts). Problems arise when pathogens jump species because the new host had not developed any resistance. These infections from related species are known as zoonoses. COVID-19 is the latest example of a virus entering another species but HIV (and various strains of influenza) were previous examples. HIV entered the human population from monkeys in Africa. These two papers outline the underlying principle of HIV and the differing epidemiologies in Africa, the USA and in Edinburgh. The underlying immunosuppression of HIV in Africa was initially hidden behind common infections and HIV first came to world awareness in focal areas of the USA as a disease seemingly limited to gay males. The epidemic of intravenous drug abuse in Edinburgh was associated with overlapping epidemics of bloodborne viruses like hepatitis B, hepatitis C and HIV.
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Coinfección/virología , Infecciones por VIH/fisiopatología , Hepatitis B/fisiopatología , Hepatitis C/fisiopatología , Animales , Brotes de Enfermedades , Infecciones por VIH/genética , Infecciones por VIH/virología , VIH-1/genética , VIH-1/patogenicidad , Hepatitis B/genética , Hepatitis C/genética , Humanos , Compartición de Agujas/estadística & datos numéricos , Filogenia , Abuso de Sustancias por Vía Intravenosa/epidemiología , ZoonosisRESUMEN
Human brains have about 100 billion neurons each with about 1000 dendritic connections with other neurons giving a total of 100 000 billion deterministic dendritic switches. Various voting systems that the brain may use can produce conflicting results from identical inputs without any indication as to which one or ones would be correct. Voting systems cannot deliver unequivocal results in any other than the simplest situations. It is hypothesised that these conflicting results provide an indeterminacy that underlies free will, self-awareness, awareness of others, consciousness and personal responsibility, all of which can influence doctor-patient interactions.
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Concienciación , Estado de Conciencia , Autonomía Personal , Relaciones Médico-Paciente , HumanosRESUMEN
Weight regulation depends on the difference between weights of absorbed and metabolised carbon and excretion of the end products of metabolism, calories and carbon dioxide, which can be independently and variably excreted. Calories can be variably excreted as heat by vasoconstriction or vasodilation and carbon dioxide can be excreted variably as exhaled carbon dioxide (the major route of carbon excretion). Unless there are changes in ventilatory carbon excretion, 'metabolism,' 'genetic factors,' 'hormones' or 'exercise' do not provide complete explanatory mechanisms for weight changes, obesity and failure of diets. Low sensitivity of respiratory centres to carbon dioxide may cause overweight and dietary failures after initial weight loss.
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Carbono/metabolismo , Dieta Reductora , Obesidad/dietoterapia , Obesidad/metabolismo , Ventilación Pulmonar/fisiología , Insuficiencia del Tratamiento , Ingestión de Energía , Metabolismo Energético , Ejercicio Físico , Humanos , Cooperación del PacienteRESUMEN
Failed perceptions of clinical abnormalities may have a neurophysiological explanation including three major covert eye problems and seven major brain-processing problems. Seven suggestions are made in an attempt to minimise their effect. We see in detail much less than we think and there is no substitute for seeing real-life clinical abnormalities.