Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) can be experimentally infected with both marine and freshwater fish trypanosomes.

Trypanosomes are haemoflagellates found in vertebrate species and many of them can cause death in infected hosts including fish and humans. With the development of high-density farming in marine and freshwater fish aquaculture systems, severe disease or death, caused by trypanosomiasis, has been frequently reported. However, due to the lack of a model system, particularly for marine fish trypanosomes, and a paucity in the understanding of the biology and pathogenesis of these parasites, effective treatment for fish trypanosomiasis is significantly hampered. The goldfish is the common model system for freshwater fish trypanosomes, mainly of the species Trypanosoma carassii, while a similar model for marine fish trypanosomes has not yet been established. To address this issue, we found that Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) could be easily infected with a marine fish trypanosome, Trypanosoma epinepheli isolated from Lates calcarifer. Obvious clinical symptoms, associated with a high parasitemia (>108/ml), were found in the infected tilapias and more than 70% mortality was recorded in individuals within 20 days of infection. Interestingly, we also found that the Nile tilapia could also be infected with a freshwater fish trypanosome isolated from the largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and caused significant death (more than 13%) in infected fish. This system not only provides an economical and effective laboratory model to study the biology and pathogenesis of marine and freshwater fish trypanosomes, but also provides a useful platform to develop vaccines and screen compounds for the protection and treatment of fish trypanosomiasis.

LampPort: a handheld digital microfluidic device for loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP).

A major goal in the development of point-of-care (POC) devices is to build them as portable to provide a rapid and effective determination for disease pathogens. In nucleic acid testing, an optical detection system used to monitor the product of nucleic acid amplification has always been a bulky accessory. In this work, we developed a handheld, automatic and detection system-free thermal digital microfluidic (DMF) device for DNA detection by loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP). Droplet manipulation and real-time temperature control systems were integrated into a handheld device. The control software could be installed into any tablet and communicate with the device via Bluetooth. In the experimentation, we loaded 2-µl samples with an electrowetting force into sandwich-structured DMF chips, thereby considerably reducing reagent consumptions. After an on-chip LAMP reaction, we added a highly concentrated SYBR Green I droplet and mixed it with a reaction droplet to enable product detection with the naked eye. This step prevented aerosol contamination by avoiding the exposure of the reaction droplet to the air. Using a blood parasite Trypanosoma brucei as a model system, this system showed similar results as a commercial thermal cycler and could detect 40 copies per reaction of the DNA target. This low-cost, compact device removed the bulky optical system for DNA detection, thus enabling it to be well suited for POC testing.

The effect of normal human serum on the mouse trypanosome Trypanosoma musculi in vitro and in vivo.

Trypanosoma musculi, a common blood flagellate found in mice, is similar in morphology and life cycle to the rat trypanosome T. lewisi. Both species belong to the subgenus Herpetosoma, and as T. lewisi has recently been shown to be a zoonotic pathogen, there is concern that T. musculi could also be potentially infective to humans. To test this hypothesis, a well-established method, the normal human serum (NHS) incubation test, was carried out which distinguishes human and non-human infective trypanosomes. We found that T. musculi could grow in 0.31% NHS in vitro, and even kept their infectivity to mice after incubation with 10% NHS for 24 h. In in vivo experiments, T. musculi were only slightly affected by NHS injection, confirming that it was less sensitive to the NHS than T. b. brucei, but more sensitive than T. lewisi. This resistance probably does not rely on a restricted uptake of ApoL-1. Due to this partial resistance, we cannot definitively confirm that T. musculi has the potential for infection to humans. As resistance is less than that of T. lewisi, our data suggest that it is unlikely to be a zoonotic pathogen although we would advise caution in the case of immunocompromised people such as AIDS and cancer patients.

Cancer in the parasitic protozoans Trypanosoma brucei and Toxoplasma gondii.

Cancer is a general name for more than 100 malignant diseases. It is postulated that all cancers start from a single abnormal cell that grows out of control. Untreated cancers can cause serious consequences and deaths. Great progress has been made in cancer research that has significantly improved our knowledge and understanding of the nature and mechanisms of the disease, but the origins of cancer are far from being well understood due to the limitations of suitable model systems and to the complexities of the disease. In view of the fact that cancers are found in various species of vertebrates and other metazoa, here, we suggest that cancer also occurs in parasitic protozoans such as Trypanosoma brucei, a blood parasite, and Toxoplasma gondii, an obligate intracellular pathogen. Without treatment, these protozoan cancers may cause severe disease and death in mammals, including humans. The simpler genomes of these single-cell organisms, in combination with their complex life cycles and fascinating life cycle differentiation processes, may help us to better understand the origins of cancers and, in particular, leukemias.

Infection by Toxoplasma gondii, a severe parasite in neonates and AIDS patients, causes impaired anion secretion in airway epithelia.

The airway epithelia initiate and modulate the inflammatory responses to various pathogens. The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator-mediated Cl(-) secretion system plays a key role in mucociliary clearance of inhaled pathogens. We have explored the effects of Toxoplasma gondii, an opportunistic intracellular protozoan parasite, on Cl(-) secretion of the mouse tracheal epithelia. In this study, ATP-induced Cl(-) secretion indicated the presence of a biphasic short-circuit current (Isc) response, which was mediated by a Ca(2+)-activated Cl(-) channel (CaCC) and the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. However, the ATP-evoked Cl(-) secretion in T. gondii-infected mouse tracheal epithelia and the elevation of [Ca(2+)]i in T. gondii-infected human airway epithelial cells were suppressed. Quantitative reverse transcription-PCR revealed that the mRNA expression level of the P2Y2 receptor (P2Y2-R) increased significantly in T. gondii-infected mouse tracheal cells. This revealed the influence that pathological changes in P2Y2-R had on the downstream signal, suggesting that P2Y2-R was involved in the mechanism underlying T. gondii infection in airways. These results link T. gondii infection as well as other pathogen infections to Cl(-) secretion, via P2Y2-R, which may provide new insights for the treatment of pneumonia caused by pathogens including T. gondii.

Comparative transcriptome analysis of small noncoding RNAs in different stages of Trypanosoma brucei.

Trypanosoma brucei, a pathogen of human and domestic animals, is an early evolved parasitic protozoan with a complex life cycle. Most genes of this parasite are post-transcriptionally regulated. However, the mechanisms and the molecules involved remain largely unknown. We have deep-sequenced the small RNAs of two life stages of this parasite--the bloodstream form and the procyclic form. Our results show that the small RNAs of T. brucei could derive from multiple sources, including NATs (natural antisense transcripts), tRNAs, and rRNAs. Most of these small RNAs in the two stages were found to share uniform characteristics. However, our results demonstrate that their variety and expression show significant differences between different stages, indicating possible functional differentiation. Dicer-knockdown evidence further proved that some of the small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) could regulate the expression of genes. Based on the genome-wide analysis of the small RNAs in the two stages of T. brucei, our results not only provide evidence to study their differentiation but also shed light on questions regarding the origins and evolution of small RNA-based mechanisms in early eukaryotes.

Pseudogene-derived small interference RNAs regulate gene expression in African Trypanosoma brucei.

Pseudogenes have been shown to acquire unique regulatory roles from more and more organisms. We report the observation of a cluster of siRNAs derived from pseudogenes of African Trypanosoma brucei using high through-put analysis. We show that these pseudogene-derived siRNAs suppress gene expression through RNA interference. The discovery that siRNAs may originate from pseudogenes and regulate gene expression in a unicellular eukaryote provides insights into the functional roles of pseudogenes and into the origin of noncoding small RNAs.

Toxoplasma gondii infection in the peritoneal macrophages of rats treated with glucocorticoids.

It is well known that toxoplasmosis can be life threatening to immunocompromised individuals such as AIDS and organ transplantation patients. Glucocorticoids (GCs) are widely used in the clinic for the treatment of autoimmune diseases and organ transplantation resulting in acute toxoplasmosis in these patients. However, the interaction and mechanism between the development of acute toxoplasmosis and GC therapy are still unknown. The aims of this study were to investigate the infection of Toxoplasma gondii in the peritoneal macrophages of rats treated with glucocorticoids. Our results showed that the growth rate of T. gondii RH strain was significantly increased in the peritoneal macrophages of rats treated with glucocorticoids in vivo. For instance, 242 (±16) tachyzoites were found in 100 macrophages from the rats treated with methylprednisolone (MP), while only 16 (±4) tachyzoites were counted in the macrophages from the non-treated control rats 24 h after infection (P < 0.01). We also demonstrated that a significant inhibition of nitric oxide (NO) production was detected in the macrophages collected from the rats post-treated with GCs with 12.90 µM (±0.99 µM) of nitrite production from the rats treated with MP, while 30.85 µM (±1.62 µM) was found in the non-treated control rats 36 h after incubation (P < 0.01). Furthermore, glucocorticoids could significantly inhibit the expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA and its protein in the rat peritoneal macrophages. Our results strongly indicate that the decrease of NO in the rat peritoneal macrophages is closely linked to the cause of acute toxoplasmosis in the host. Additionally, there was a significant increase in the number of cysts produced by the naturally cyst forming, T. gondii Prugniaud strain with an average of 2,795 (±422) cysts of the parasite being detected in the brains of the rats treated with dexamethasone, while only 1,356 (±490) cysts were found in the non-treated control animals (P < 0.01). As rats and humans are both naturally resistant to T. gondii infection, these novel data could lead to a better understanding of the development of acute toxoplasmosis during glucocorticoid therapy in humans.

Stage-specific requirement for Isa1 and Isa2 proteins in the mitochondrion of Trypanosoma brucei and heterologous rescue by human and Blastocystis orthologues.

IscA/Isa proteins function as alternative scaffolds for the assembly of Fe-S clusters and/or provide iron for their assembly in prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Isa are usually non-essential and in most organisms are confined to the mitochondrion. We have studied the function of TbIsa1 and TbIsa2 in Trypanosoma brucei, where the requirement for both of them to sustain cell growth depends on the life cycle stage. The TbIsa proteins are abundant in the procyclic form, which contains an active organelle. Both proteins are indispensable for growth, as they are required for the assembly of Fe-S clusters in mitochondrial aconitase, fumarase and succinate dehydrogenase. Reactive oxygen species but not iron accumulate in the procyclic mitochondrion upon ablation of the TbIsa proteins, but their depletion does not influence the assembly of Fe-S clusters in cytosolic proteins. In the bloodstream form, which has a downregulated mitochondrion, the TbIsa proteins are non-essential. The Isa2 orthologue of the anaerobic protist Blastocystis partially rescued the growth and enzymatic activities of TbIsa1/2 knock-down. Rescues of single knock-downs as well as heterologous rescues with human Isa orthologues partially recovered the activities of aconitase and fumarase. These results show that the Isa1 and Isa2 proteins of diverse eukaryotes have overlapping functions.

Pseudogenes are not pseudo any more.

Recent significant progress toward understanding the function of pseudogenes in protozoa (Trypanosoma brucei), metazoa (mouse) and plants, make it pertinent to provide a brief overview on what has been learned about this fascinating subject. We discuss the regulatory mechanisms of pseudogenes at the post-transcriptional level and advance new ideas toward understanding the evolution of these, sometimes called "garbage genes" or "junk DNA," seeking to stimulate the interest of scientists and additional research on the subject. We hope this point-of-view can be helpful to scientists working or seeking to work on these and related issues.

Integrated Analysis Reveals the Characteristics and Effects of SARS-CoV-2 Maternal-Fetal Transmission.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has caused a pandemic of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) and is threatening global health. SARS-CoV-2 spreads by air with a transmission rate of up to 15%, but the probability of its maternal-fetal transmission through the placenta is reported to be low at around 3.28%. However, it is still unclear that which tissues and developmental periods hold higher risks and what the underlying molecular mechanisms are. We conducted an integrated analysis of large-scale transcriptome and single-cell sequencing data to investigate the key factors that affect SARS-CoV-2 maternal-fetal transmission as well as the characteristics and effects of them. Our results showed that the abundance of cytomegalovirus (CMV) and Zika virus (ZIKV) infection-associated factors in the placenta were higher than their primarily infected tissues, while the expression levels of SARS-CoV-2 binding receptor angiotensin-converting enzyme II (ACE2) were similar between lung and placenta. By contrast, an important SARS-CoV-2 infection-associated factor, type II transmembrane serine protease (TMPRSS2), was poorly expressed in placenta. Further scRNA-Seq analysis revealed that ACE2 and TMPRSS2 were co-expressed in very few trophoblastic cells. Interestingly, during the embryonic development stages, the abundance of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 was much higher in multiple embryonic tissues than in the placenta. Based on our present analysis, the intestine in 20th week of embryonic development was at a high risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection. Additionally, we found that during the fetal development, ACE2 and TMPRSS2 were enriched in pathogen infection-associated pathways and may involve in the biological processes related to T-cell activation. In conclusion, our present study suggests that though the placenta provides a good physical barrier against SARS-CoV-2 infection for healthy fetal development, multiple embryonic tissues are under risks of the virus infection, which may be adversely affected once infected prenatally. Therefore, it is necessary to enhance maternal care to prevent the potential impact and harm of SARS-CoV-2 maternal-fetal transmission.

SARS-CoV-2 causes a significant stress response mediated by small RNAs in the blood of COVID-19 patients.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has had a serious impact on the world. In this study, small RNAs from the blood of COVID-19 patients with moderate or severe symptoms were extracted for high-throughput sequencing and analysis. Interestingly, the levels of a special group of tRNA-derived small RNAs (tsRNAs) were found to be dramatically upregulated after SARS-CoV-2 infection, particularly in coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) patients with severe symptoms. In particular, the 3'CCA tsRNAs from tRNA-Gly were highly consistent with the inflammation indicator C-reactive protein (CRP). In addition, we found that the majority of significantly changed microRNAs (miRNAs) were associated with endoplasmic reticulum (ER)/unfolded protein response (UPR) sensors, which may lead to the induction of proinflammatory cytokine and immune responses. This study found that SARS-CoV-2 infection caused significant changes in the levels of stress-associated small RNAs in patient blood and their potential functions. Our research revealed that the cells of COVID-19 patients undergo tremendous stress and respond, which can be reflected or regulated by small non-coding RNA (sncRNAs), thus providing potential thought for therapeutic intervention in COVID-19 by modulating small RNA levels or activities.

Kinetoplastid guide RNA biogenesis is dependent on subunits of the mitochondrial RNA binding complex 1 and mitochondrial RNA polymerase.

The mitochondrial RNA binding complex 1 (MRB1) is a recently discovered complex of proteins associated with the TbRGG1 and TbRGG2 proteins in Trypanosoma brucei. Based on the phenotype caused by down-regulation of these two proteins, it was proposed to play an unspecified role in RNA editing. RNAi silencing of three newly characterized protein subunits, guide RNA associated proteins (GAPs) 1 and 2 as well as a predicted DExD/H-box RNA helicase, show they are essential for cell growth in the procyclic stage. Furthermore, their down-regulation leads to inhibition of editing in only those mRNAs for which minicircle-encoded guide (g) RNAs are required. However, editing remains unaffected when the maxicircle-encoded cis-acting gRNA is employed. Interestingly, all three proteins are necessary for the expression of the minicircle-encoded gRNAs. Moreover, down-regulation of a fourth assayed putative MRB1 subunit, Nudix hydrolase, does not appear to destabilize gRNAs, and down-regulation of this protein has a general impact on the stability of maxicircle-encoded RNAs. GAP1 and 2 are also essential for the survival of the bloodstream stage, in which the gRNAs become eliminated upon depletion of either protein. Immunolocalization revealed that GAP1 and 2 are concentrated into discrete spots along the mitochondrion, usually localized in the proximity of the kinetoplast. Finally, we demonstrate that the same mtRNA polymerase known to transcribe the maxicircle mRNAs may also have a role in expression of the minicircle-encoded gRNAs.

Innate Resistance to Leishmania amazonensis Infection in Rat Is Dependent on NOS2.

Leishmania infection causes diverse clinical manifestations in humans. The disease outcome is complicated by the combination of many host and parasite factors. Inbred mouse strains vary in resistance to Leishmania major but are highly susceptible to Leishmania amazonensis infection. However, rats are highly resistant to L. amazonensis infection due to unknown mechanisms. We use the inducible nitric oxide synthase (Nos2) gene knockout rat model (Nos2 -/- rat) to investigate the role of NOS2 against leishmania infection in rats. Our results demonstrated that diversion toward the NOS2 pathway is the key factor explaining the resistance of rats against L. amazonensis infection. Rats deficient in NOS2 are susceptible to L. amazonensis infection even though their immune response to infection is still strong. Moreover, adoptive transfer of NOS2 competent macrophages into Nos2 -/- rats significantly reduced disease development and parasite load. Thus, we conclude that the distinct L-arginine metabolism, observed in rat macrophages, is the basis of the strong innate resistance to Leishmania. These data highlight that macrophages from different hosts possess distinctive properties and produce different outcomes in innate immunity to Leishmania infections.

Species identification and phylogenetic analysis of Leishmania isolated from patients, vectors and hares in the Xinjiang Autonomous Region, The People's Republic of China.

BACKGROUND: Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) has been declared as one of the six major tropical diseases by the World Health Organization. This disease has been successfully controlled in China, except for some areas in the western region, such as the Xinjiang Autonomous Region, where both anthroponotic VL (AVL) and desert type zoonotic VL (DT-ZVL) remain endemic with sporadic epidemics. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Here, an eleven-year survey (2004-2014) of Leishmania species, encompassing both VL types isolated from patients, sand-fly vectors and Tarim hares (Lepus yarkandensis) from the Xinjiang Autonomous Region was conducted, with a special emphasis on the hares as a potential reservoir animal for DT-ZVL. Key diagnostic genes, ITS1, hsp70 and nagt (encoding N-acetylglucosamine-1-phosphate transferase) were used for phylogenetic analyses, placing all Xinjiang isolates into one clade of the L. donovani complex. Unexpectedly, AVL isolates were found to be closely related to L. infantum, while DT-ZVL isolates were closer to L. donovani. Unrooted parsimony networks of haplotypes for these isolates also revealed their relationship. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The above analyses of the DT-ZVL isolates suggested their geographic isolation and independent evolution. The sequence identity of isolates from patients, vectors and the Tarim hares in a single DT-ZVL site provides strong evidence in support of this species as an animal reservoir.

Further evidence from SSCP and ITS DNA sequencing support Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma equiperdum as subspecies or even strains of Trypanosoma brucei.

The subgenus Trypanozoon includes three species Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma evansi and Trypanosoma equiperdum, which are morphologically identical and indistinguishable even using some molecular methods. In this study, PCR-based single strand conformation polymorphism (PCR-SSCP) was used to analyze the ribosomal DNA of the Trypanozoon species. Data indicate different patterns of ITS2 fragments between T. brucei, T. evansi and T. equiperdum by SSCP. Furthermore, analysis of total ITS sequences within these three members of the subgenus Trypanozoon showed a high degree of homology using phylogenetic analysis but were polyphyletic in haplotype networks. These data provide novel nuclear evidence to further support the notion that T. evansi and T. equiperdum should be subspecies or even strains of T. brucei.

Trehalose, an easy, safe and efficient cryoprotectant for the parasitic protozoan Trypanosoma brucei.

Trehalose, a non-permeating cryoprotective agent (CPA), has been documented as less toxic and highly efficient at cryopreserving different kinds of cells or organisms. In the present study, trehalose was evaluated for its application in cryopreservation of both Trypanosoma brucei procyclic and bloodstream form cells. The cryopreservation efficiency was determined by the motility of trypanosomes after thawing, as well as a subsequent recovery and infectivity assessment. The viability of trypanosomes from cultivation that were frozen in a serial concentrations of trehalose showed similar results to classical CPAs of glycerol and DMSO. Nevertheless, trypanosomes cryopreserved in 0.2M trehalose showed the best growth characteristic during subsequent cultivation. In addition, CPA cocktails with trehalose and permeating CPA glycerol or DMSO were developed and evaluated. Interestingly, trypanosomes in host (mouse) blood cryopreserved in 0.4M trehalose plus 5% glycerol showed higher infectivity than those preserved in trehalose/DMSO cocktails as well as individually. Further investigations showed that, in comparison with slow freezing at -80°C, flash freezing in liquid nitrogen provided better cryopreservation for bloodstream form cells than slow freezing. In conclusion, trehalose is an easy, safe and efficient CPA for cryopreservation of T. brucei and potentially for other protozoan species and cells.

Resistance to normal human serum reveals Trypanosoma lewisi as an underestimated human pathogen.

Human-infectious trypanosomes such as Trypanosoma cruzi, T. brucei rhodesiense, and T. b. gambiense can be discriminated from those only infecting animals by their resistance to normal human serum (NHS). These parasites are naturally resistant to trypanolysis induced by the human-specific pore-forming serum protein apolipoprotein L1 (ApoL-1). T. lewisi, a worldwide distributed parasite, has been considered as rat-specific and non-pathogenic to the natural hosts. Here we provide evidence that 19 tested T. lewisi isolates from Thailand and China share resistance to NHS. Further investigation on one selected isolate CPO02 showed that it could resist at least 90% NHS or 30 µg/ml recombinant human ApoL-1 (rhApoL-1) in vitro, in contrast to T. b. brucei which could not survive in 0.0001% NHS and 0.1 µg/ml rhApoL-1. In vivo tests in rats also demonstrated that this parasite is fully resistant to lysis by NHS. Together with recent reports of atypical human infection by T. lewisi, these data allow the conclusion that T. lewisi is potentially an underestimated and thus a neglected human pathogen.

Visual observation of African trypanosomes during cryopreservation.

Protozoa have been widely used for the study of cryopreservation. The survival rate after cryopreservation has always received the most attention, while the cell viability during the process of freezing and thawing has been much less studied. In the present study, we report successful cryopreservation of Trypanosoma brucei, a parasitic protozoa of human and animals, using controlled-rate freezing at 5°C/min, and real-time observation of activity using a microscope differential scanning calorimeter system during the freezing and thawing process. Trehalose used as a cryoprotective agent at a concentration of 0.4 M allowed the trypanosomes to endure freezing and thawing with >89% survival rate. Results from mechanisms analysis indicate that vitrification by trehalose contributes significantly to the protection of the trypanosomes from damage at low temperature.

Mitogen-activated protein kinase 5, a novel molecular marker for the identification and detection of Trypanozoon species.

Based on the sequence of mitogen-activated protein kinase 5 (TbMAPK5) gene, we have developed a specific PCR method which can delineate the species within the Trypanozoon subgenus from other parasites or host DNA conveniently. In view of further application in field studies, we performed loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) employing filter paper flecked with rodent blood. Our data showed that TbMAPK5-specific LAMP was sensitive enough to detect a very low parasitemia during the early stages of the infection and fluctuating parasitemia period, and is below the detection limit by microscope. The detection limit for the infected blood sample was 1000 trypanosomes/ml of blood. Based on these results, we consider that TbMAPK5 locus may be a useful target for LAMP diagnosis providing sensitivity and the potential for the genotyping/identification of Trypanozoon species.