Uptake Kinetics of Methylmercury in a Freshwater Alga Exposed to Methylmercury Complexes with Environmentally Relevant Thiols.

Cellular uptake of dissolved methylmercury (MeHg) by phytoplankton is the most important point of entry for MeHg into aquatic food webs. However, the process is not fully understood. In this study we investigated the influence of chemical speciation on rate constants for MeHg accumulation by the freshwater green microalga Selenastrum capricornutum. We used six MeHg-thiol complexes with moderate but important structural differences commonly found in the environment. Rate constants for MeHg interactions with cells were determined for the MeHg-thiol treatments and a control assay containing the thermodynamically less stable MeHgOH complex. We found both elevated amounts of MeHg associated with whole cells and higher MeHg association rate constants in the control compared to the thiol treatments. Furthermore, the association rate constants were lower when algae were exposed to MeHg complexes with thiols of larger size and more "branched" chemical structure compared to complexes with simpler structure. The results further demonstrated that the thermodynamic stability and chemical structure of MeHg complexes in the medium is an important controlling factor for the rate of MeHg interactions with the cell surface, but not for the MeHg exchange rate across the membrane. Our results are in line with uptake mechanisms involving formation of MeHg complexes with cell surface ligands prior to internalization.

Hydration of the oxygen-evolving complex of photosystem II probed in the dark-stable S1 state using proton NMR dispersion profiles.

The hydration of the oxygen-evolving complex (OEC) was characterized in the dark stable S1 state of photosystem II using water R1(ω) NMR dispersion (NMRD) profiles. The R1(ω) NMRD profiles were recorded over a frequency range from 0.01 MHz to 40 MHz for both intact and Mn-depleted photosystem II core complexes from Thermosynechococcus vulcanus (T. vulcanus). The intact-minus-(Mn)-depleted difference NMRD profiles show a characteristic dispersion from approximately 0.03 MHz to 1 MHz, which is interpreted on the basis of the Solomon-Bloembergen-Morgan (SBM) and the slow motion theories as being due to a paramagnetic enhanced relaxation (PRE) of water protons. Both theories are qualitatively consistent with the ST = 1, g = 4.9 paramagnetic state previously described for the S1 state of the OEC; however, an alternative explanation involving the loss of a separate class of long-lived internal waters due to the Mn-depletion procedure can presently not be ruled out. Using a point-dipole approximation the PRE-NMRD effect can be described as being caused by 1-2 water molecules that are located about 10 Å away from the spin center of the Mn4CaO5 cluster in the OEC. The application of the SBM theory to the dispersion observed for PSII in the S1 state is questionable, because the parameters extracted do not fulfil the presupposed perturbation criterion. In contrast, the slow motion theory gives a consistent picture indicating that the water molecules are in fast chemical exchange with the bulk (τw < 1 µs). The modulation of the zero-field splitting (ZFS) interaction suggests a (restricted) reorientation/structural equilibrium of the Mn4CaO5 cluster with a characteristic time constant of τZFS = 0.6-0.9 µs.

The water R1(ω) NMRD profiles of a hydrated protein from molecular dynamics simulation.

The hydration of a protein, Peroxiredoxin 5, is obtained from a molecular dynamics simulation and compared with the picture of hydration which is obtained by analysing the water proton R1 NMRD profiles using a generally accepted relaxation model [K. Venu, V. P. Denisov and B. Halle, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 1997, 119, 3122]. The discrepancy between the hydration pictures derived from the water R1(ω0)-NMRD profiles and MD is relevant in a discussion of the factors behind the stretched NMRD profile, the distribution of orientational order parameters and residence times of buried water used in the NMRD model.

Mercury methylation rates for geochemically relevant Hg(II) species in sediments.

Monomethylmercury (MeHg) in fish from freshwater, estuarine, and marine environments is a major global environmental issue. Mercury levels in biota are mainly controlled by the methylation of inorganic mercuric mercury (Hg(II)) to MeHg in water, sediments, and soils. There is, however, a knowledge gap concerning the mechanisms and rates of methylation of specific geochemical Hg(II) species. Such information is crucial for a better understanding of variations in MeHg concentrations among ecosystems and, in particular, for predicting the outcome of currently proposed measures to mitigate mercury emissions and reduce MeHg concentrations in fish. To fill this knowledge gap we propose an experimental approach using Hg(II) isotope tracers, with defined and geochemically important adsorbed and solid Hg(II) forms in sediments, to study MeHg formation. We report Hg(II) methylation rate constants, k(m), in estuarine sediments which span over 2 orders of magnitude depending on chemical form of added tracer: metacinnabar (ß-(201)HgS(s)) < cinnabar (α-(199)HgS(s)) < Hg(II) reacted with mackinawite (≡FeS-(202)Hg(II)) < Hg(II) bonded to natural organic matter (NOM-(196)Hg(II)) < a typical aqueous tracer ((198)Hg(NO(3))(2)(aq)). We conclude that a combination of thermodynamic and kinetic effects of Hg(II) solid-phase dissolution and surface desorption control the Hg(II) methylation rate in sediments and cause the large observed differences in k(m)-values. The selection of relevant solid-phase and surface-adsorbed Hg(II) tracers will therefore be crucial to achieving biogeochemically accurate estimates of ambient Hg(II) methylation rates.

The Stern-Gerlach experiment and the effects of spin relaxation.

The classical Stern-Gerlach experiment is analyzed with an emphasis on the spin dynamics. The central question asked is whether there occurs a relaxation of the spin angular momentum during the time the particle passes through the Stern-Gerlach magnet. We examine in particular the transverse relaxation, involving angular momentum exchange between the spin of the particles and the spins of the magnet. A method is presented describing relaxation effects at an individual particle level. This leads to a stochastic equation of motion for the spins. This is coupled to a classical equation of motion for the particle translation. The experimental situation is then modeled through simulations of individual trajectories using two sets of parameter choices and three different sets of initial conditions. The two main conclusions are: (A) if the coupling between the magnet and the spin is solely described by the Zeeman interaction with the average magnetic field the simulations show a clear disagreement with the experimental observation of Stern and Gerlach. (B) If one, on the other hand, also allows for a T(2) relaxation time shorter than the passage time one can obtain a practically quantitative agreement with the experimental observations. These conclusions are at variance with the standard textbook explanation of the Stern-Gerlach experiment.

The quadrupole enhanced 1H spin-lattice relaxation of the amide proton in slow tumbling proteins.

An analysis, based on the stochastic Liouville approach, is presented of the R(1)-NMRD or field dependent spin-lattice relaxation rate of amide protons. The proton relaxivity, displayed as R(1)-NMRD profiles, is calculated for a reorienting (1)H-(14)N spin group, where the inter spin coupling is due to spin dipole-dipole coupling or the scalar coupling. The quadrupole nucleus (14)N has an asymmetry parameter eta = 0.4 and a quadrupole interaction which is modulated by the overall reorientational motion of the protein. In the very slow reorientational regime, omega(Q)tau(R) >> 1 and tau(R) > or = 2.0 micros, both the dipole-dipole coupling and the scalar coupling yield a T(1)-NMRD profile with three marked peaks of proton spin relaxation enhancement. These peaks appear when the proton Larmor frequency, omega(I), matches the nuclear quadrupole spin transition frequencies: omega(1) = omega(Q)2eta/3, omega(2) = omega(Q)(1-eta/3) and omega(3) = omega(Q)(1 + eta/3), and the quadrupole spin system thus acts as a relaxation sink. The relative relaxation enhancements of the peaks are different for the dipole-dipole and the scalar coupling. Considering the dipole-dipole coupling, the low frequency peak, omega(1), is small compared to the high field peaks whereas for the scalar coupling the situation is changed. For slow tumbling proteins with a correlation time of tau(R) = 400 ns, omega(2) and omega(3) are not resolved but become one relatively broad peak. At even faster reorientation, tau(R) < 60 ns, the marked peaks disappear. In this motional regime, the main effect of the cross relaxation phenomenon is a subtle perturbation of the main amide proton T(1) NMRD dispersion. The low field part of it can be approximately described by a Lorentzian function: R(DD,SC)(0.01)/(1 + (omega(I)tau(R)3/2)(2)) whereas the high field part coincides with R(DD,SC)(0.01)/(1 + (omega(I)tau(R))(2)).

Electron spin relaxation at low field.

The low field ESR lineshape and the electron spin-lattice relaxation correlation function are calculated using the stochastic Liouville theory for an effective electron spin quantum number S = 1. When an axially symmetric permanent zero field splitting provides the dominant relaxation mechanism, and when it is much larger than the rotational diffusion constant, it is shown that both electron spin correlation functions S(0)S(t) (n = 0,1) are characterized by the same relaxation time tau(S) = (4D(R))(-1). This confirms the conjectures made by Schaefle and Sharp, J. Chem. Phys., 2004, 121, 5287 and by Fries and Belorizky, J. Chem. Phys., 2005, 123, 124510, based on numerical results using a different formalism. The stochastic Liouville approach also gives the paramagnetically enhanced nuclear spin relaxation time constants, T(1) and T(2), and the ESR lineshape function I(omega). In particular, the L-band (B(0) = 0.035 T) ESR spectrum of a low symmetry Ni(ii)-complex with a cylindrical ZFS tensor is shown to be detectable at sufficiently slowly reorientation of the complex. The analysis shows that the L-band spectrum becomes similar to the zero-field spectrum with a electron spin relaxation time tau(S) = (4D(R))(-1).

On the stability of chymotrypsin inhibitor 2 in a 10 M urea solution. The role of interaction energies for urea-induced protein denaturation.

Molecular dynamics simulations of chymotrypsin inhibitor 2 in both water and in 10 M urea have been compared with respect to the energies of interaction between protein and solvent. The analysis yield clear and detailed information regarding the enthalpic driving force of urea-induced protein denaturation. The protein is kept in the folded structure by applying positional restraints on the alpha-carbons, thereby creating an equilibrium system from which appropriate driving forces for denaturation can be obtained. All protein atoms are classified as belonging to the backbone, the polar side chains or to the hydrophobic side chains. The interaction energies are extracted for each class separately. The commonly proposed mechanisms of urea denaturation, i.e. that urea interacts mainly with the backbone or with the hydrophobic side chains, can then be tested. The results show that urea decreases the Lennard-Jones interaction energies between protein and solvent by a large amount. The electrostatic energies are almost unaffected by the switch of solvent. The energetically favorable interaction between CI2 and the urea solvent will function as a driving force for the protein to increase its solvent accessible surface area as compared to the folded protein in water. The magnitude of the decrease in the Lennard-Jones energies for the hydrophobic and the hydrophilic side chains and for the backbone were similar. We therefore conclude that urea interacts favorably with the whole protein surface and that all parts of the protein are important in urea-induced denaturation.

A theoretical spin relaxation and molecular dynamics simulation study of the Gd(H2O)9(3+) complex.

A theoretical analysis of the paramagnetically enhanced water proton spin-lattice relaxation of a hydrated Gd(3+) ion is combined with Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations. The electron-proton dipole-dipole correlation function, C(p)(DD)(tau), as well as the pseudo-rotation (PR) model of the transient zero-field splitting (ZFS) are evaluated with the help of the data from MD simulations. The fast local water motion in the first hydration shell, i.e. the wagging and rocking motions, is found not to change the mono exponential character of the dipole correlation function C(p)(DD)(tau), but is important in the time dependence of the transient ZFS interaction. The dynamics of the transient ZFS interaction is modeled as the water-induced electric field gradient tensor at the site of the metal ion. This approach follows the ideas of the pseudo-rotation model, describing the fluctuating zero-field interaction as a constant amplitude in the principal frame but reorienting according to a rotational diffusion equation of motion. The MD results indicate that the pseudo-rotation model gives a multi-exponential correlation function which oscillates at short times and is described by three exponential terms. The time scale is shorter than previously assumed but contain an intermediate time constant (1-2 ps). The electron spin resonance (ESR) spectral width at half height at frequencies of X-band, Q-band, 75 MHz, 150 MHz and 225 MHz can be reproduced at 320 K without any contributions from 4th or 6th rank ZFS interactions. Consequently, there are two mutually inconsistent dynamic models of the ZFS interaction which can describe the water proton T(1)-NMRD (nuclear magnetic resonance dispersion) profile and the field dependent ESR spectra of the hydrated Gd(III) complex equally well.

1H NMRD profiles and ESR lineshapes of Gd(III) complexes: a comparison between the generalized SBM and the stochastic Liouville approach.

A complete description of the T1-NMRD profiles and the ESR lineshape of Gd(III) complexes (S = 7/2) was presented using second-order perturbation theory (GSBM) by Zhou et al. [J. Magn. Reson. 167 (2004) 147]. This report compares the GSBM with the stochastic Liouville approach (SLA) to determine the validity of the closed analytical expressions of NMRD and the ESR lineshape functions. Both approaches give the same results at high fields while a very small divergence is observed for X- and W-band ESR lineshapes when the magnitude of the perturbation term times the correlation time approaches the limit of the perturbation regime, DeltaZFStau(f) approximately 0.1. There was a clear discrepancy between the theoretical GSBM X-band spectrum and the recorded ESR spectrum of the Gd(III) MS-325+HSA complex. This is probably due to a slow-motion effect caused by a slow modulation of the ZFS interaction. The characteristic correlation time of this slow modulation is in the range of 150 ps, which therefore cannot be due to the reorientational motion of the whole MS-325 + HSA complex.

Line shapes in CP/MAS (13)C NMR spectra of cellulose I.

The CP/MAS (13)C NMR line shape of cellulose I has been qualitatively analyzed by direct simulations using the Ornstein-Uhlenbeck stochastic process and the Kubo model. Both approaches describe a anhydroglucose C4 carbon as a oscillator with fluctuating Larmor frequency. The NMR resonance frequency is written omega=omega +omega(t), where the fluctuating part with zero mean was modelled as a stationary Markov diffusion process. The simulation results both motivates the use of multiple line shapes when fitting CP/MAS (13)C NMR spectra recorded on cellulose I and gives some insights into why signals from crystalline cellulose I give rise to Lorentzian line shapes.

The effect of memory in the stochastic master equation analyzed using the stochastic Liouville equation of motion. Electronic energy migration transfer between reorienting donor-donor, donor-acceptor chromophores.

This paper discusses the process of energy migration transfer within reorientating chromophores using the stochastic master equation (SME) and the stochastic Liouville equation (SLE) of motion. We have found that the SME over-estimates the rate of the energy migration compared to the SLE solution for a case of weakly interacting chromophores. This discrepancy between SME and SLE is caused by a memory effect occurring when fluctuations in the dipole-dipole Hamiltonian (H(t)) are on the same timescale as the intrinsic fast transverse relaxation rate characterized by (1/T(2)). Thus the timescale critical for energy-transfer experiments is T(2) approximately 10(-13) s. An extended SME is constructed, accounting for the memory effect of the dipole-dipole Hamiltonian dynamics. The influence of memory on the interpretation of experiments is discussed.

The viscosity and temperature dependence of X-band ESR lineshapes of Gd(III) aqueous complex.

X-band ESR spectra of Gd-aqua complex in various weight concentration of glycerol have been recorded at four temperatures. The interpretation of the ESR linewidth is preformed using both the stochastic Liouville approach (SLA) and a perturbation theory. The SLA uses a one dynamic model of the zero-field splitting whereas the perturbation approach uses a two dynamic model. Both models can reproduce the variation of the linewidth with respect to viscosity. In the SLA model, both the zero-field splitting (ZFS) interaction and the correlation time vary with the glycerol content. In the two dynamic perturbation model, only the correlation times are viscosity dependent. The two models give different NMRD profiles.

The viscosity and temperature dependence of (1)H T(1)-NMRD of the Gd(H(2)O)(8)(3+) complex.

Water proton T(1)-NMRD profiles of the Gd(H(2)O)(8)(3+) complex have been recorded at three temperatures and at four concentrations of glycerol. The analysis is performed using both the generalized Solomon-Bloembergen-Morgan (GSBM) theory, and the stochastic Liouville approach (SLA). The GSBM approach uses a two processes dynamic model of the zero-field splitting (ZFS) correlation function whereas SLA uses a single process model. Both models reproduce the proton T(1)-NMRD profiles well. However, the model parameters extracted from the two analyses, yield different ESR X-band spectra which moreover do not reproduce the experimental ESR spectra. It is shown that the analyses of the proton T(1)-NMRD profiles recorded for a solution Gd(H(2)O)(8)(3+) ions are relatively insensitive to the slow modulation part of dynamic model of the ZFS interaction correlation function. The description of the electron spin system results in a very small static ZFS, while recent ESR lineshape analysis indicates that the contribution from the static ZFS is important. Analysis of proton T(1)-NMRD profiles of Gd(H(2)O)(8)(3+) complex do result in a description of the electron spin system but these microscopic parameters are uncertain unless they also are tested in a ESR-lineshape analysis.

On the philosophy of optimizing contrast agents. An analysis of 1H NMRD profiles and ESR lineshapes of the Gd(III)complex MS-325+HSA.

A generalization of the modified SBM theory is developed in closed analytical form. The theory is applied to describe the paramagnetically enhanced water proton spin-lattice relaxation rates of the aqueous-systems containing a gadolinium(S=7/2) complex(MS-325) in the presence or absence of human serum albumin (HSA). MS-325 binds to HSA: in the absence of the protein the reorientational time, tauR, is short, but when HSA is added tauR becomes much longer. In this way, the effect of reorientational motion, static (Delta s), and transient (Delta t) zero-field splitting (ZFS) interactions on both the water proton relaxivity and the Gd ESR lineshapes are investigated. Two dynamic models of electron spin relaxation are presented, characterized by transient and static ZFS-interactions. X-, Q-, and W-bands ESR spectra of MS-325+HSA are analyzed in order to describe the effect on the electron spin system upon binding to a macromolecule. A computer program based on this theory is developed which calculates solvent water proton T1 NMRD profiles and the corresponding X-, Q-, U-, and W-bands ESR lineshapes.

The affect of urea on the kinetics of local unfolding processes in chymotrypsin inhibitor 2.

The dynamics of chymotrypsin inhibitor 2 (CI2) in water, as well as in 10M urea, have been studied by Molecular Dynamics simulations. The analysis aims at investigating how local protein processes are affected by urea and how the perturbation by urea on the local level manifests itself in the kinetics of the global unfolding. The results show that the effect of urea on local processes depends upon the type of process at hand. An isolated two-residue contact on the surface of CI2 has a decreased frequency of rupture in the urea solvent. This is in contrast to the increased frequency of rupture of the hydrogen bonds in secondary structure elements in the urea solvent. It is proposed that the increase in the unfolding rates of complex protein processes is based upon the retardation of the refolding rate of small scale, isolated processes.

A combined molecular dynamic simulation and urea 14N NMR relaxation study of the urea-lysozyme system.

Urea in the lysozyme solvation shell has been studied by utilizing a combination of urea 14N, water 17O NMR relaxation experiments and a molecular dynamics simulation of the urea-lysozyme system. Samples with lysozyme in the native fold in water as well as in 3M urea have been studied, as well as denatured lysozyme in a 8.5M urea solvent. The spin relaxation rates of the samples with folded protein show a clear field dependence, which is consistent with a few urea molecules having long residence times on the protein surface and preferentially located in pockets and grooves on the protein. By combining the 3M urea NMR relaxation data and data from the MD simulation, a full parameter set of the relaxation model is found which can successfully predict the experimental relaxation rates of the 3M urea sample. However, in the parameter fitting it is evident that the rotational dynamics of urea in the MD simulation is slightly too fast to be consistent with the NMR relaxation rates, perhaps a result of the fast dynamics of the TIP3P water model. The relaxation rates of urea in the proximity of the unfolded lysozyme lack field dependence, which can be interpreted as a loss of pockets and grooves on the denatured protein. The extracted model parameters from the 3M sample are adjusted and tested on a simple model of the unfolded protein sample and are seen to be in agreement with the relaxation rates. It is shown that the combination of NMR relaxation and MD simulations can be used to create a microscopic picture of the solvent at the protein interface, which can be used for example in the study of chemical denaturation.

Comparison of different methods for calculating the paramagnetic relaxation enhancement of nuclear spins as a function of the magnetic field.

The enhancement of the spin-lattice relaxation rate for nuclear spins in a ligand bound to a paramagnetic metal ion [known as the paramagnetic relaxation enhancement (PRE)] arises primarily through the dipole-dipole (DD) interaction between the nuclear spins and the electron spins. In solution, the DD interaction is modulated mostly by reorientation of the nuclear spin-electron spin axis and by electron spin relaxation. Calculations of the PRE are in general complicated, mainly because the electron spin interacts so strongly with the other degrees of freedom that its relaxation cannot be described by second-order perturbation theory or the Redfield theory. Three approaches to resolve this problem exist in the literature: The so-called slow-motion theory, originating from Swedish groups [Benetis et al., Mol. Phys. 48, 329 (1983); Kowalewski et al., Adv. Inorg. Chem. 57, (2005); Larsson et al., J. Chem. Phys. 101, 1116 (1994); T. Nilsson et al., J. Magn. Reson. 154, 269 (2002)] and two different methods based on simulations of the dynamics of electron spin in time domain, developed in Grenoble [Fries and Belorizky, J. Chem. Phys. 126, 204503 (2007); Rast et al., ibid. 115, 7554 (2001)] and Ann Arbor [Abernathy and Sharp, J. Chem. Phys. 106, 9032 (1997); Schaefle and Sharp, ibid. 121, 5387 (2004); Schaefle and Sharp, J. Magn. Reson. 176, 160 (2005)], respectively. In this paper, we report a numerical comparison of the three methods for a large variety of parameter sets, meant to correspond to large and small complexes of gadolinium(III) and of nickel(II). It is found that the agreement between the Swedish and the Grenoble approaches is very good for practically all parameter sets, while the predictions of the Ann Arbor model are similar in a number of the calculations but deviate significantly in others, reflecting in part differences in the treatment of electron spin relaxation. The origins of the discrepancies are discussed briefly.

Direct calculation of (1)H(2)O T(1) NMRD profiles and EPR lineshapes for the electron spin quantum numbers S = 1, 3/2, 2, 5/2, 3, 7/2, based on the stochastic Liouville equation combined with Brownian dynamics simulation.

Direct calculation of electron spin relaxation and EPR lineshapes, based on Brownian dynamics simulation techniques and the stochastic Liouville equation approach (SLE-L) [Mol. Phys., 2004, 102, 1085-1093], is here generalized to high spin systems with spin quantum number S = 3/2, 2, 5/2, 3 and 7/2. A direct calculation method is demonstrated for electron spin-spin and spin-lattice relaxation, S-, X- and Q-band EPR-lineshapes and paramagnetic enhanced water proton T(1)- NMRD profiles. The main relaxation mechanism for the electron spin system is a stochastic second rank zero field splitting (ZFS). Brownian dynamics simulation techniques are used in describing a fluctuating ZFS interaction which comprises two parts namely the "permanent" part which is modulated by isotropic reorientation diffusion, and the transient part which is modulated by fast local distortion, which is also modelled by the isotropic rotation diffusion model. The SLE-L approach present is applicable both in the perturbation (Redfield) regime as well as outside the perturbation regime, in the so called slow motion regime.

On the quantitative molecular analysis of electronic energy transfer within donor-acceptor pairs.

An extended Förster theory (EFT) on electronic energy transfer is presented for the quantitative analysis of time-resolved fluorescence lifetime and depolarisation experiments. The EFT, which was derived from the stochastic Liouville equation, yields microscopic information concerning the reorientation correlation times, the order parameters, as well as inter chromophoric distances. Weakly interacting donor and acceptor groups, which reorient and interact in a pair wise fashion, are considered, under isotropic and anisotropic conditions. For the analysis of experiments it is shown that not only do we need to consider the orientational distributions of the transition dipoles, but the internal reorienting molecular dynamics within the pair which is of even greater importance. The latter determines the shape as well as the rate of the observed donor fluorescence and depolarisation decays, which are most often not mono-exponential functions. It is shown that the commonly used Förster theory is a special case of the EFT. Strategies are presented for applying the EFT, which makes use of Brownian dynamics simulation.