Tolerability of long-term cannabidiol supplementation to healthy adult dogs.

BACKGROUND: Cannabidiol (CBD) has therapeutic potential in companion animals. Shorter-term studies have determined that CBD is well tolerated in dogs with mild adverse effects and an increase in alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity. There is need to assess CBD's long-term tolerability. HYPOTHESIS: Determine the long-term tolerability of CBD administered PO to healthy dogs for 36 weeks at dosages of 5 and 10 mg/kg body weight (BW)/day. Our hypothesis was that CBD would be well tolerated by dogs. METHODS: Eighteen healthy adult beagle dogs were randomly assigned to 3 groups of 6 each that received 0, 5, or 10 mg/kg BW/day CBD PO. Dogs were adapted to their housing for 3 weeks and received treatment for 36 weeks once daily with food. Adverse events (AEs) were recorded daily. Blood biochemistry profiles were monitored every 4 weeks. Data were analyzed as repeated measures over time using a mixed model, with significance at α = 0.05. RESULTS: The 0 and 5 mg/kg treatment groups had similar fecal scores, and the 10 mg/kg treatment group had higher frequency of soft feces. No other significant AEs were noted. An increase (P < .0001) in ALP activity occurred in groups that received CBD. Remaining blood variables were within reference range. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE: Chronic administration of CBD in healthy dogs at 5 mg/kg was better tolerated than 10 mg/kg, and both dosages caused an increase in ALP activity. Although our data does not indicate hepatic damage, it is recommended to monitor liver function in dogs receiving CBD chronically.

Proper Immune Response Depends on Early Exposure to Gut Microbiota in Broiler Chicks.

The successional changes in the early intestinal microbiota occur concomitantly with the development, expansion, and education of the mucosal immune system. Although great attention of researchers has been focused on understanding the linkage between microbiota and immune functions, many essential details of the symbiotic relationship between the intestinal pioneer microbiota and the avian immune system remain to be discovered. This study was conducted to understand the impact of different early life intestinal colonizers on innate and adaptive immune processes in chicks and further identify immune-associated proteins expressed in the intestinal tissue. To accomplish it, we performed an in ovo application of two apathogenic Enterobacteriaceae isolates and lactic acid bacteria (L) to determine their influences on the intestinal proteome profile of broilers at the day of hatch (DOH) and at 10 days old. The results indicated that there were predicted biological functions of L-treated chicks associated with the activation and balanced function of the innate and adaptive immune systems. At the same time, the Enterobacteriaceae-exposed birds presented dysregulated immunological mechanisms or downregulated processes related to immune development. Those findings suggested that a proper immune function was dependent on specific gut microbiota exposure, in which the prenatal probiotic application may have favored the fitting programming of immune functions in chicks.

Extremely prolonged HIV seroconversion associated with an MHC haplotype carrying disease susceptibility genes for antibody deficiency disorders.

Severe immunodeficiency during primary human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is unusual. Here, we characterized viral and immunological parameters in a subject presenting with Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia in the setting of prolonged primary HIV illness and delayed seroconversion. HIV antibody was only detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay 12 months after presentation, and Western blot profiles remain indeterminate. Isolated virus was of R5 phenotype, exhibited poor viral fitness, but was otherwise unremarkable. Analysis of HIV antibody isotypes showed failure to mount a detectable HIV IgG response over nearly 2 years of infection, in particular IgG(1)- and IgG(3)-specific responses, despite normal responses to common infections and vaccines. Genetic analysis demonstrated homozygosity for part of an MHC haplotype containing susceptibility genes for common variable immunodeficiency (CVID) syndrome and other antibody deficiency disorders. Thus, a primary disorder of specific antibody production may explain exceptionally slow antibody development in an otherwise severe seroconversion illness. This highlights the need for multiparameter testing, in particular use of a fourth generation HIV test, for confirming HIV infection and underscores the importance of host factors in HIV pathogenesis.

Investigation of the performance of serological assays used for Lyme disease testing in Australia.

Spirochaetes of the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato complex, which includes those that cause Lyme disease, have not been identified in Australia. Nevertheless, Australian patients exist, some of whom have not left the country, who have symptoms consistent with so-called "chronic Lyme disease". Blood specimens from these individuals may be tested in Australian laboratories and in specialist laboratories outside Australia and sometimes conflicting results are obtained. Such discrepancies cause the patients to question the results from the Australian laboratories and seek assistance from the Australian Government in clarifying why the discrepancies occur. The aim of this study was to determine the level of agreement in results between commonly used B. burgdorferi serology assays in specimens of known status, and between results reported by different laboratories when they use the same serology assay. Five immunoassays and five immunoblots used in Australia and elsewhere were examined for the detection of IgG antibodies to Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato. Predominantly, archived specimens previously tested for Lyme disease were used for the study and included 639 contributed by seven clinical laboratories located either in Australia or in areas endemic for Lyme disease. Also included were 308 prospectively collected Australian blood donor specimens. All clinical specimens were tested in all 10 assays whereas blood donor specimens were tested in all immunoassays and a subset was tested on immunoblots. With the exception of one immunoblot, the results between the assays agreed with each other in a known positive specimen population ≥ 77% of the time and in a known negative population, 88% of the time or greater. The test results obtained during the study were different from the participating laboratory's less than 2% of the time when the same assay was used. These findings suggest that discordance in results between laboratories is more likely due to variation in algorithms or in the use of assays with different sensitivities or specificities rather than conflicting results being reported from the same assay in different laboratories. In the known negative population, specificities of the immunoassays ranged between 87.7% and 99.7%. In Australia's low prevalence population, this would translate to a positive predictive value of < 4%.

Intestinal Pioneer Colonizers as Drivers of Ileal Microbial Composition and Diversity of Broiler Chickens.

Given that recent advances in metagenomics have highlighted the importance of intestinal microbes for poultry health, there has been a corresponding search for early manipulation strategies of intestinal microbiota in order to advance immune system development and optimize functional properties of growth. In this study, we used the in ovo technique as an experimental model to address how early bacterial intestinal colonization could affect the development and establishment of the mature ileal microbiota. Inoculations containing one of the following: 0.2 mL of 0.9% sterile saline (S), approximately 102 cells of Citrobacter freundii (CF), Citrobacter species (C2) or lactic acid bacteria mixture (L) were administered via in ovo into the amnion. Results showed that Enterobacteriaceae abundance was negatively correlated with aging, although its high population at day of hatch affected the microbiota composition, delaying mature microbiota establishment. L treatment increased colonization of butyrate-producing bacteria by 3 and 10 days, and segmented filamentous bacteria in the lower ileum by 10 days. On the other hand, L-probiotic decreased the population of Enterococcaceae. In addition, L and C2 microbial communities were less diverse at 10 than 3 days of age in the upper ileum. Importantly, these findings provide a valuable resource for a potential study model for interactions between microbial colonization and associated immune responses. In conclusion, our analysis demonstrates that intestinal pioneer colonizers play a critical role in driving the course of microbial community composition and diversity over time, in which early life exposure to L-based probiotic supported selection alongside greater colonization of symbiotic populations in the ileum of young broilers.

Comparative evaluation of simian, simian-human, and human immunodeficiency virus infections in the pigtail macaque (Macaca nemestrina) model.

The global impact of HIV/AIDS intensifies the need for a preventive vaccine and nonhuman primate models can help provide critical insights into effective immunity. Pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina) are increasingly studied as a nonhuman primate model for AIDS. We compared the virologic and immunologic characteristics of HIV-1, SIV, and SHIV infection of naive pigtail macaques across a series of preclinical HIV vaccine studies. SIVmac251 and SIVmac239 infection of naive pigtail macaques resulted in a gradual decline in peripheral CD4+ T cells in the setting of high levels of viremia, approximating most closely human infection of HIV-1. In contrast, the CXCR4-utilizing SHIVmn229 virus resulted in rapid depletion of CD4+ T cells and minimal generation of humoral or cellular immune responses, similar to that observed with SHIV89.6P infection of rhesus macaques. Infection with the CCR5-utilizing, rhesus macaque passaged, SHIVSF162P3 resulted in some overall CD4+ T cell decline, however, three of eight macaques naturally control SHIVSF162P3 viremia to very low levels in the setting of robust adaptive immunity. Despite attempts at infecting pigtail macaques with HIV-1 strains passaged in juvenile pigtail macaques in vivo or in PBMC isolated from pigtail macaques in vitro, only lower nonsustained levels of viral replication were observed. Our results provide a series of virologic models with which to evaluate potential AIDS vaccines in pigtail macaques.

Commercial enzyme immunoassay adapted for the detection of antibodies to hepatitis C virus in dried blood spots.

BACKGROUND: Dried blood spots (DBS) provide a convenient method for blood sample collection in many settings where the prevalence of infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) is increasing. Consequently, HCV assays are required that produce reliable results using samples derived from DBS. OBJECTIVES AND STUDY DESIGN: The optimum buffer for the elution of samples from DBS was selected and the performance of a commercial enzyme immunoassay (EIA) was evaluated using these DBS eluates and paired plasma samples. RESULTS: DBS with paired plasma samples were compared using this modified commercial EIA, which was found to have an estimated sensitivity and specificity of approximately 100% for detecting anti-HCV antibodies in DBS. CONCLUSION: A DBS-based assay for the detection of antibodies to HCV will prove valuable for collecting epidemiological data in the field or in under resourced settings.

Brief Report: Seminal Plasma Anti-HIV Antibodies Trigger Antibody-dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity: Implications for HIV Transmission.

Recent evidence from HIV vaccine trials in humans and non-human primates suggests that nonneutralizing antibody functions, such as antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), are an important component of vaccine-mediated protection. Whether anti-HIV ADCC antibodies are present in seminal fluid, however, is not known. We assessed whether anti-HIV antibodies within seminal plasma mediate ADCC and activate natural killer (NK) cells. Using matched blood and seminal plasma samples, we detected anti-HIV IgG within samples from all 11 HIV-infected donors. Furthermore, anti-HIV antibodies within the seminal plasma triggered detectable ADCC in 9 of 11 donors and activated NK cells in 6 of 11 donors. The ability of seminal plasma-derived IgG to activate NK cells in an anti-HIV antibody-dependent manner was enhanced when IgG were enriched and other seminal plasma components were removed. These observations have relevance for understanding natural immunity to HIV infection and provide assistance with HIV vaccine design.

Incidence immunoassay for distinguishing recent from established HIV-1 infection in therapy-naive populations.

OBJECTIVE: To identify a specific marker of recent HIV-1 infection. DESIGN: The humoral immune response in individuals recently infected with HIV-1 was followed by analysing the antibody isotype-specific response generated to HIV-1 antigens in sequential samples collected during and following seroconversion. METHODS: Antibody isotype-specific HIV-1 Western blots were analysed to identify interactions indicative of recent HIV-1 infection. These responses were further quantified using an antibody isotype-specific enzyme-linked immunoabsorbent assay based on recombinant HIV-1 antigens. RESULTS: During maturation of the immune response to HIV-1 infection, a rapid and enduring IgG1 isotype response was seen to all the major proteins transcribed by env, gag and pol. An early transient peak of IgG3 reactivity to p24 was observed over an interval of approximately 1-4 months following HIV-1 infection. The presence of IgG3 reactivity to p24 permitted established infection to be distinguished from recently infected individuals during this time period. CONCLUSION: An assay for anti-p24 IgG3 reactivity would provide an estimate of the incidence of HIV infection that may be applicable for epidemiological surveys as well as for monitoring new infections during vaccine trials and for managing treatment programmes.

Isotype-switched immunoglobulin G antibodies to HIV Gag proteins may provide alternative or additional immune responses to 'protective' human leukocyte antigen-B alleles in HIV controllers.

BACKGROUND: Natural control of HIV infection is associated with CD8 T-cell responses to Gag-encoded antigens of the HIV core and carriage of 'protective' human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-B alleles, but some HIV controllers do not possess these attributes. As slower HIV disease progression is associated with high levels of antibodies to HIV Gag proteins, we have examined antibodies to HIV proteins in controllers with and without 'protective' HLA-B alleles. METHODS: Plasma from 32 HIV controllers and 21 noncontrollers was examined for immunoglobulin G1 (IgG1) and IgG2 antibodies to HIV proteins in virus lysates by western blot assay and to recombinant (r) p55 and gp140 by ELISA. Natural killer (NK) cell-activating antibodies and FcγRIIa-binding immune complexes were also assessed. RESULTS: Plasma levels of IgG1 antibodies to HIV Gag (p18, p24, rp55) and Pol-encoded (p32, p51, p66) proteins were higher in HIV controllers. In contrast, IgG1 antibodies to Env proteins were less discriminatory, with only antigp120 levels being higher in controllers. High-level IgG2 antibodies to any Gag protein were most common in HIV controllers not carrying a 'protective' HLA-B allele, particularly HLA-B*57 (P = 0.016). HIV controllers without 'protective' HLA-B alleles also had higher plasma levels of IgG1 antip32 (P = 0.04). NK cell-activating antibodies to gp140 Env protein were higher in elite controllers but did not differentiate HIV controllers with or without 'protective' HLA-B alleles. IgG1 was increased in FcγRIIa-binding immune complexes from noncontrollers. CONCLUSION: We hypothesize that isotype-switched (IgG2+) antibodies to HIV Gag proteins and possibly IgG1 antip32 may provide alternative or additional immune control mechanisms to HLA-restricted CD8 T-cell responses in HIV controllers.

Immunoassays for the diagnosis of HIV: meeting future needs by enhancing the quality of testing.

Immunoassays for detecting HIV infection perform better than other serological assays. HIV immunoassays are presented in a number of different formats: instrument-based, plate, rapid assays and as immunoblots. HIV immunoassays for screening and diagnosis are now in their fourth generation; an assay generation meaning that significant modifications to the assay format have led to a significant enhancement in quality. Although still not perfect, they are now of exceptionally high quality if conducted properly. Most problems relate to how the assays are performed. Many laboratories, especially in high human development index (HDI) countries, manage testing within functioning quality-management systems, but this is not true of laboratories in low HDI countries or in many medium HDI countries. Simple rapid tests for HIV are being used increasingly, and create special challenges for assuring quality. Users of HIV immunoassays are learning that a poorer assay used well has better outcomes than a splendid assay performed poorly. Experience highlights the importance of conducting HIV testing within quality-managed systems and according to international standards, but testing quality and laboratory quality management must be funded adequately.

Evaluation of recombinant Kunjin replicon SIV vaccines for protective efficacy in macaques.

Persistent gag-specific T cell immunity would be a useful component of an effective HIV vaccine. The Flavivirus Kunjin replicon was previously engineered to persistently express HIV gag and was shown to induce protective responses in mice. We evaluated Kunjin replicon virus-like-particles expressing SIVgag-pol in pigtail macaques. Kunjin-specific antibodies were induced, but no SIV-specific T cell immunity were detected. Following SIVmac251 challenge, there was no difference in SIV viremia or retention of CD4 T cells between Kunjin-SIVgag-pol vaccine immunized animals and controls. An amnestic SIV gag-specific CD8 T cell response associated with control of viremia was observed in 1 of 6 immunized animals. Refinements of this vector system and optimization of the immunization doses, routes, and schedules are required prior to clinical trials.

Humoral immune response to primary rubella virus infection.

An assay capable of distinguishing between the immune response generated by recent exposure to rubella virus and the immune response existing as a result of past exposure or immunization is required for the diagnosis of primary rubella virus infection, especially in pregnant women. Avidity assays, which are based on the premise that chaotropic agents can be used to selectively dissociate the low-avidity antibodies generated early in the course of infection, have become routinely used in an effort to accomplish this. We have thoroughly investigated the immunological basis of an avidity assay using a viral lysate-based assay and an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) based on a peptide analogue of the putative immunodominant region of the E1 glycoprotein (E1208-239). The relative affinities of the antibodies directed against E1208-239 were measured by surface plasmon resonance and were found to correlate well with the avidity index calculated from the ELISA results. We found that the immune response generated during primary rubella virus infection consists of an initial low-affinity peak of immunoglobulin M (IgM) reactivity followed by transient peaks of low-avidity IgG3 and IgA reactivity. The predominant response is an IgG1 response which increases in concentration and affinity progressively over the course of infection. Incubation with the chaotropic agent used in the avidity assay abolished the detection of the early low-affinity peaks of IgM, IgA, and IgG3 reactivity while leaving the high-affinity IgG1 response relatively unaffected. The present study supported the premise that avidity assays based on appropriate antigens can be useful to confirm primary rubella virus infection.

Subtype AE HIV-1 DNA and recombinant Fowlpoxvirus vaccines encoding five shared HIV-1 genes: safety and T cell immunogenicity in macaques.

To induce broad T cell immunity to HIV-1, we evaluated the safety, immunogenicity and dose-response relationship of DNA and recombinant Fowlpoxvirus (rFPV) vaccines encoding five shared HIV subtype AE genes (Gag, Pol, Env, Tat, Rev) in pigtail macaques. The DNA (three doses of either 1 mg or 4.5 mg) and rFPV (a single boost of either 5 x 10(7) or 2 x 10(8) plaque forming units) vaccines were administered intramuscularly without adjuvants. Broadly reactive HIV-specific T cell immunity was stimulated by all doses of the vaccines administered, without significant differences between the high and low doses studied. The vaccines induced both CD4 and CD8 T cell responses to Gag, Pol, Env and Tat/Rev proteins, with CD4 T cell responses being greater in magnitude than CD8 T cell responses. The vaccine-induced T cell responses had significant cross-recognition of heterologous HIV-1 proteins from non-AE HIV-1 subtypes. In conclusion, these subtype AE HIV-1 DNA and rFPV vaccines were safe, induced broad T-cell immunity in macaques, and are suitable for progression into clinical trials.

Mucosally-administered human-simian immunodeficiency virus DNA and fowlpoxvirus-based recombinant vaccines reduce acute phase viral replication in macaques following vaginal challenge with CCR5-tropic SHIVSF162P3.

Further advances are required in understanding protection from AIDS by T cell immunity across mucosal sites of virus transmission. We analysed a set of multigenic HIV and SHIV DNA and Fowlpoxvirus (FPV) prime and boost vaccines for immunogenicity and protective efficacy in outbred pigtail macaques when delivered via mucosal surfaces (intranasally or intrarectally). Intranasally delivered DNA, even when adjuvanted and given as a fine droplet spray, was neither immunogenic nor protective in macaques. Some protection from acute infection with a pathogenic vaginal SHIVSF162P3 challenge was, however, observed with a regimen involving intramuscular DNA vaccine priming followed by either intranasally or intrarectally delivered rFPV boosting. Interestingly, animals boosted with rFPV vaccine via either of these mucosal routes had poor circulating T cell responses prior to challenge with SHIV compared to those boosted via the intramuscular route. Nevertheless, the mucosally-vaccinated animals generated equivalent anamnestic mucosal and systemic SHIV-specific CD4 and CD8 T cell responses following SHIV administration, with significant reduction in acute plasma viremia against this vaginal challenge. Our data suggest strategies for effective priming of partial immunity to mucosal HIV-1 exposure utilizing systemic prime and mucosal boost vaccination strategies.

Evaluation in macaques of HIV-1 DNA vaccines containing primate CpG motifs and fowlpoxvirus vaccines co-expressing IFNgamma or IL-12.

Induction of HIV-specific T-cell responses by vaccines may facilitate efficient control of HIV. Plasmid DNA vaccines and recombinant fowlpoxvirus (rFPV) vaccines are promising HIV-1 vaccine candidates, although either vaccine alone may be insufficient to protect against HIV-1. A consecutive immunisation strategy involving priming with DNA and boosting with rFPV vaccines encoding multiple common HIV-1 antigens was further evaluated in 30 macaques. The DNA vaccine vector included CpG immunostimulatory molecules, and rFPV vaccines were compared with rFPV vaccines co-expressing the pro-T cell cytokines IFNgamma or IL-12. Vaccines expressed multiple HIV-1 genes, mutated to remove active sites of the HIV proteins. The vaccines were well tolerated, and a significant enhancement of DNA-vaccine primed HIV-1 specific T lymphocyte responses was observed following rFPV boosting. Co-expression of IFNgamma or IL-12 by the rFPV vaccines did not further enhance immune responses. Non-sterilising protection from a non-pathogenic HIV-1 challenge was observed. This study provides evidence of a safe, optimised, strategy for the generation of T-cell mediated immunity to HIV-1.