The aged tumor microenvironment limits T cell control of cancer.

The etiology and effect of age-related immune dysfunction in cancer is not completely understood. Here we show that limited priming of CD8+ T cells in the aged tumor microenvironment (TME) outweighs cell-intrinsic defects in limiting tumor control. Increased tumor growth in aging is associated with reduced CD8+ T cell infiltration and function. Transfer of T cells from young mice does not restore tumor control in aged mice owing to rapid induction of T cell dysfunction. Cell-extrinsic signals in the aged TME drive a tumor-infiltrating age-associated dysfunctional (TTAD) cell state that is functionally, transcriptionally and epigenetically distinct from canonical T cell exhaustion. Altered natural killer cell-dendritic cell-CD8+ T cell cross-talk in aged tumors impairs T cell priming by conventional type 1 dendritic cells and promotes TTAD cell formation. Aged mice are thereby unable to benefit from therapeutic tumor vaccination. Critically, myeloid-targeted therapy to reinvigorate conventional type 1 dendritic cells can improve tumor control and restore CD8+ T cell immunity in aging.

Interferon regulatory factor 4 modulates epigenetic silencing and cancer-critical pathways in melanoma cells.

Interferon regulatory factor 4 (IRF4) was initially identified as a key controller in lymphocyte differentiation and function, and subsequently as a dependency factor and therapy target in lymphocyte-derived cancers. In melanocytes, IRF4 takes part in pigmentation. Although genetic studies have implicated IRF4 in melanoma, how IRF4 functions in melanoma cells has remained largely elusive. Here, we confirmed prevalent IRF4 expression in melanoma and showed that high expression is linked to dependency in cells and mortality in patients. Analysis of genes activated by IRF4 uncovered, as a novel target category, epigenetic silencing factors involved in DNA methylation (DNMT1, DNMT3B, UHRF1) and histone H3K27 methylation (EZH2). Consequently, we show that IRF4 controls the expression of tumour suppressor genes known to be silenced by these epigenetic modifications, for instance cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors CDKN1A and CDKN1B, the PI3-AKT pathway regulator PTEN, and primary cilium components. Furthermore, IRF4 modulates activity of key downstream oncogenic pathways, such as WNT/ß-catenin and AKT, impacting cell proliferation and survival. Accordingly, IRF4 modifies the effectiveness of pertinent epigenetic drugs on melanoma cells, a finding that encourages further studies towards therapeutic targeting of IRF4 in melanoma.

Metabolic Control of Epigenetics and Its Role in CD8+ T Cell Differentiation and Function.

Epigenetic programs that control posttranslational modifications of histone proteins and DNA itself tightly regulate transcriptional networks determining the identity and function of CD8+ T cells. Chromatin-modifying enzymes such as histone acetyltransferases and deacetylases, represent key molecular determinants of the epigenetic imprinting of CD8+ T cells. The functions of these enzymes highly depend on the availability of key products of cellular metabolism pathways such as acetyl-CoA, NAD (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and SEM (S-adenosylmethionine), suggesting that there is a close crosstalk between the metabolic and the epigenetic regulation of CD8+ T cells. In this review, we will discuss the metabolic regulation of CD8+ T cell epigenetics during activation and differentiation. We will furthermore summarize how metabolic signals from the tumor microenvironment (TME) shape the epigenetic landscape of CD8+ T cells to better understand the mechanism underlying CD8+ T cell exhaustion in anti-tumor and anti-viral immunity, which might help to overcome limitations of current CD8+ T cell-based therapies.

Leptin induces TNFα-dependent inflammation in acquired generalized lipodystrophy and combined Crohn's disease.

Leptin has been shown to modulate intestinal inflammation in mice. However, clinical evidence regarding its immune-stimulatory potential in human Crohn's disease remains sparse. We here describe a patient with the unique combination of acquired generalized lipodystrophy and Crohn's disease (AGLCD) featuring a lack of adipose tissue, leptin deficiency and intestinal inflammation. Using mass and flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry and functional metabolic analyses, the AGLCD patient was compared to healthy individuals and Crohn's disease patients regarding immune cell composition, function and metabolism and the effects of recombinant N-methionylleptin (rLeptin) were evaluated. We provide evidence that rLeptin exerts diverse pro-inflammatory effects on immune cell differentiation and function, including the metabolic reprogramming of immune cells and the induction of TNFα, ultimately aggravating Crohn's disease in the AGLCD patient, which can be reversed by anti-TNFα therapy. Our results indicate that leptin is required for human immune homeostasis and contributes to autoimmunity in a TNFα-dependent manner.

Functional Role of Transient Receptor Potential Channels in Immune Cells and Epithelia.

Transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channels are widely expressed in several tissues throughout the mammalian organism. Originally, TRP channel physiology was focusing on its fundamental meaning in sensory neuronal function. Today, it is known that activation of several TRP ion channels in peptidergic neurons does not only result in neuropeptide release and consecutive neurogenic inflammation. Growing evidence demonstrates functional extra-neuronal TRP channel expression in immune and epithelial cells with important implications for mucosal immunology. TRP channels maintain intracellular calcium homeostasis to regulate various functions in the respective cells such as nociception, production and release of inflammatory mediators, phagocytosis, and cell migration. In this review, we provide an overview about TRP-mediated effects in immune and epithelial cells with an emphasis on mucosal immunology of the gut. Crosstalk between neurons, epithelial cells, and immune cells induced by activation of TRP channels orchestrates the immunologic response. Understanding of its molecular mechanisms paves the way to novel clinical approaches for the treatment of various inflammatory disorders including IBD.

Oleate but not stearate induces the regulatory phenotype of myeloid suppressor cells.

Tumor infiltrating myeloid cells play contradictory roles in the tumor development. Dendritic cells and classical activated macrophages support anti-tumor immune activity via antigen presentation and induction of pro-inflammatory immune responses. Myeloid suppressor cells (MSCs), for instance myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) or tumor associated macrophages play a critical role in tumor growth. Here, treatment with sodium oleate, an unsaturated fatty acid, induced a regulatory phenotype in the myeloid suppressor cell line MSC-2 and resulted in an increased suppression of activated T cells, paralleled by increased intracellular lipid droplets formation. Furthermore, sodium oleate potentiated nitric oxide (NO) production in MSC-2, thereby increasing their suppressive capacity. In primary polarized bone marrow cells, sodium oleate (C18:1) and linoleate (C18:2), but not stearate (C18:0) were identified as potent FFA to induce a regulatory phenotype. This effect was abrogated in MSC-2 as well as primary cells by specific inhibition of droplets formation while the inhibition of de novo FFA synthesis proved ineffective, suggesting a critical role for exogenous FFA in the functional induction of MSCs. Taken together our data introduce a new unsaturated fatty acid-dependent pathway shaping the functional phenotype of MSCs, facilitating the tumor escape from the immune system.