Valgus malalignment causes increased forces on a medial collateral ligament reconstruction under dynamic valgus loading: A biomechanical study.

PURPOSE: To investigate the forces on a medial collateral ligament (MCL) reconstruction (MCLR) relative to the valgus alignment of the knee. METHODS: Eight fresh-frozen human cadaveric knees were subjected to dynamic valgus loading at 400 N using a custom-made kinematics rig. After resection of the superficial medial collateral ligament, a single-bundle MCLR with a hamstring tendon autograft was performed. A medial opening wedge distal femoral osteotomy was performed and fixed with an external fixator to gradually adjust the alignment in 5° increments from 0° to 10° valgus. For each degree of valgus deformity, the resulting forces acting on the MCLR were measured through a force sensor and captured in 15° increments from 0° to 60° of knee flexion. RESULTS: Irrespective of the degree of knee flexion, increasing valgus malalignment resulted in significantly increased forces acting on the MCLR compared to neutral alignment (p < 0.05). Dynamic loading at 5° valgus resulted in increased forces on the MCLR at all flexion angles ranging between 16.2 N and 18.5 N (p < 0.05 from 0° to 30°; p < 0.01 from 45° to 60°). A 10° valgus malalignment further increased the forces on the MCLR at all flexion angles ranging between 29.4 N and 40.0 N (p < 0.01 from 0° to 45°, p < 0.05 at 60°). CONCLUSION: Valgus malalignment of the knee caused increased forces acting on the reconstructed MCL. In cases of chronic medial instabilities accompanied by a valgus deformity ≥ 5°, a realigning osteotomy should be considered concomitantly to the MCLR to protect the graft and potentially reduce graft failures. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level III.

New generation of superior single plating vs. low-profile dual minifragment plating in diaphyseal clavicle fractures: a biomechanical comparative study.

BACKGROUND: Recently, a new generation of superior clavicle plates was developed featuring the variable-angle locking technology for enhanced screw positioning and a less prominent and optimized plate-to-bone fit design. On the other hand, minifragment plates in dual plating mode have demonstrated promising clinical results. The aim of the current study was to compare the biomechanical competence of single superior plating using the new-generation plate vs. dual plating using low-profile minifragment plates. METHODS: Sixteen paired human cadaveric clavicles were pairwise assigned to 2 groups for instrumentation with either a superior 2.7-mm variable-angle locking compression plate (group 1), or with one 2.5-mm anterior combined with one 2.0-mm superior matrix mandible plate (group 2). An unstable clavicle shaft fracture (AO/OTA 15.2C) was simulated by means of a 5-mm osteotomy gap. Specimens were cyclically tested to failure under craniocaudal cantilever bending, superimposed with bidirectional torsion around the shaft axis, and monitored via motion tracking. RESULTS: Initial construct stiffness was significantly higher in group 2 (9.28 ± 4.40 N/mm) compared to group 1 (3.68 ± 1.08 N/mm), P = .003. The amplitudes of interfragmentary motions in terms of axial and shear displacement, fracture gap opening and torsion, over the course of 12,500 cycles were significantly higher in group 1 compared to group 2, P ≤ .038. Cycles to 2 mm shear displacement were significantly lower in group 1 (22,792 ± 4346) compared to group 2 (27,437 ± 1877), P = .047. CONCLUSION: From a biomechanical perspective, low-profile 2.5/2.0-mm dual plates could be considered as a useful alternative for diaphyseal clavicle fracture fixation, especially in less common unstable fracture configurations.

Knot holding capacity of two different high-strength sutures-a biomechanical analysis.

PURPOSE: The number of seven required throws per knot was previously reported as providing sufficient security against slippage. A novel high-strength suture featuring dynamic tightening may allow for throw number reduction without compromising stability. The aims of this study were to (1) investigate the influence of the throw number and the effect of different ambient conditions on the knot security of two different high-strength sutures, and (2) compare their biomechanical competence. METHODS: Two sutures (FiberWire (FW) and DynaCord (DC)) were considered for preparing alternating surgical knots. The specimens were stratified for exposure to different media during biomechanical testing-namely air (dry), saline solution (wet), and fat (fatty-wet). A monotonic tensile ramp loading to failure was applied in each test run. For each suture and ambient condition, seven specimens with three to seven throws each were tested (n = 7), evaluating their slippage and ultimate force to failure. The minimum number of throws preventing suture unraveling was determined for each suture type and condition. RESULTS: For each suture type and condition, failure occurred via rupture in all specimens for the following minimum number of throws: FW-dry-7, wet-7, fatty-wet-7; DC-dry-6, wet-4, fatty-wet-5. When applying seven throws, FW demonstrated significantly larger slippage (6.5 ± 2.2 mm) versus DC (3.5 ± 0.4 mm) in wet (p = 0.004) but not in dry and fatty-wet conditions (p ≥ 0.313). CONCLUSIONS: The lower number of throws providing knot security of DC versus FW in the more realistic wet and fatty-wet conditions indicates that the novel DC suture may allow to decrease the foreign body volume and save surgical time without compromising the biomechanical competence.

New dynamic suture material for tendon transfer surgeries in the upper extremity - a biomechanical comparative analysis.

BACKGROUND: Early mobilization after tendon surgery is crucial to avoid commonly observed postoperative soft tissue adhesions. Recently, a new suture was introduced (DYNACORD; DC) with a salt-infused silicone core designed to minimize laxity and preserve consistent tissue approximation in order to avoid gap formation and allow early mobilization. AIMS: To compare the biomechanical competence of DC against a conventional high strength suture (FiberWire; FW) in a human cadaveric tendon transfer model with an early rehabilitation protocol. METHODS: Sixteen tendon transfers (flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS) IV to flexor pollicis longus (FPL)) were performed in 8 pairs human cadaveric forearms using either DC or FW. Markings were set 0.8 cm proximally and 0.7 cm distally to the level of the interweaving zone of the transfer. All specimens underwent repetitive thumb flexion against resistance in 9 intermittent series of 300 cycles each, simulating an aggressive postoperative rehabilitation protocol. After each series, the distance of the proximal marker to the interweaving zone (proximal), the length of the interweaving zone (intermediate) and the distance of the distal marker to the interweaving zone (distal) were measured. RESULTS: Pooled data over all nine series, normalized to the immediate postoperative status, demonstrated no significant differences between FW and DC (p ≥ 0.355) for the proximal and distal markers. However, at the intermediate zone, DC was associated with significant length shortening (p < 0.001) compared to FW without significant length changes (p = 0.351). Load to catastrophic failure demonstrated significant higher forces in FW (p = 0.011). Nevertheless, due to failure mainly proximal or distal of the transfer zone, these loads are not informative. CONCLUSION: From a biomechanical perspective, DC preserved tissue approximation and might be considered as a valid alternative to conventional high-strength sutures in tendon transfer surgery. DC might allow for a shorter interweaving zone and a more aggressive early postoperative rehabilitation program, possibly avoiding commonly observed postoperative soft tissue adhesions and stiffness.

Lateral rim variable angle locked plating versus tension band wiring of simple and complex patella fractures: a biomechanical study.

INTRODUCTION: Treatment of both simple and complex patella fractures is a challenging clinical problem. Although tension band wiring has been the standard of care, it can be associated with high complication rates. The aim of this study was to investigate the biomechanical performance of recently developed lateral rim variable angle locking plates versus tension band wiring used for fixation of simple and complex patella fractures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Sixteen pairs of human anatomical knees were used to simulate either two-part transverse simple AO/OTA 34-C1 or five-part complex AO/OTA 34-C3 patella fractures by means of osteotomies, with each fracture model created in eight pairs. The complex fracture pattern was characterized by a medial and a lateral proximal fragment, together with an inferomedial, an inferolateral, and an inferior (central distal) fragment mimicking comminution around the distal patellar pole. The specimens with simple fractures were pairwise assigned for fixation with either tension band wiring through two parallel cannulated screws or a lateral rim variable angle locking plate. The knees with complex fractures were pairwise treated with either tension band wiring through two parallel cannulated screws plus circumferential cerclage wiring or a lateral rim variable angle locking plate. Each specimen was tested over 5000 cycles by pulling on the quadriceps tendon, simulating active knee extension and passive knee flexion within the range of 90° flexion to full extension. Interfragmentary movements were captured via motion tracking. RESULTS: For both fracture types, the articular displacements measured between the proximal and distal fragments at the central patella aspect between 1000 and 5000 cycles, together with the relative rotations of these fragments around the mediolateral axis were all significantly smaller following the lateral rim variable angle locked plating compared with tension band wiring, p ≤ 0.01. CONCLUSIONS: From a biomechanical perspective, lateral rim variable angle locked plating of both simple and complex patella fractures provides superior construct stability versus tension band wiring under dynamic loading.

Fragment size of lateral Hoffa fractures determines screw fixation trajectory: a human cadaveric cohort study.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Recommendations regarding fragment-size-dependent screw fixation trajectory for coronal plane fractures of the posterior femoral condyles (Hoffa fractures) are lacking. The aim of this study was to compare the biomechanical properties of anteroposterior (AP) and crossed posteroanterior (PA) screw fixations across differently sized Hoffa fractures on human cadaveric femora. PATIENTS AND METHODS: 4 different sizes of lateral Hoffa fractures (n = 12 x 4) were created in 48 distal human femora according to the Letenneur classification: (i) type I, (ii) type IIa, (ii) type IIb, and (iv) type IIc. Based on bone mineral density (BMD), specimens were assigned to the 4 fracture clusters and each cluster was further assigned to fixation with either AP (n = 6) or crossed PA screws (n = 6) to ensure homogeneity of BMD values and comparability between the different test conditions. All specimens were biomechanically tested under progressively increasing cyclic loading until failure, capturing the interfragmentary movements via motion tracking. RESULTS: For Letenneur type I fractures, kilocycles to failure (mean difference [∆] 2.1, 95% confidence interval [CI] -1.3 to 5.5), failure load (∆ 105 N, CI -83 to 293), axial displacement (∆ 0.3 mm, CI -0.8 to 1.3), and fragment rotation (∆ 0.5°, CI -3.2 to 2.1) over 5.0 kilocycles did not differ significantly between the 2 screw trajectories. For each separate subtype of Letenneur type II fractures, fixation with crossed PA screws resulted in significantly higher kilocycles to failure (∆ 6.7, CI 3.3-10.1 to ∆ 8.9, CI 5.5-12.3) and failure load (∆ 275 N, CI 87-463 to ∆ 438, CI 250-626), as well as, less axial displacement from 3.0 kilocycles onwards (∆ 0.4°, CI 0.03-0.7 to ∆ 0.5°, CI 0.01-0.9) compared with AP screw fixation. CONCLUSION: Irrespective of the size of Letenneur type II fractures, crossed PA screw fixation provided greater biomechanical stability than AP-configured screws, whereas both screw fixation techniques demonstrated comparable biomechanical competence for Letenneur type I fractures. Fragment-size-dependent treatment strategies might be helpful to determine not only the screw configuration but also the surgical approach.

Optimizing Subtalar Arthrodesis: A Human Cadaveric Evaluation of a Novel Partially-Threaded Screw Combination in the Delta Configuration.

Background and Objectives: Despite the established role of subtalar joint arthrodesis (SJA) for treatment of subtalar osteoarthritis, achieving bone union remains challenging, with up to 46% non-union rates. Adequate compression and stable fixation are crucial for successful outcomes, with internal screw fixation being the gold standard for SJA. The delta configuration, featuring highly divergent screws, offers stability, however, it can result in hardware irritation in 20-30% of patients. Solutions to solve this complication include cannulated compression screw (CCS) countersinking or cannulated compression headless screw (CCHS) application. The aim of this biomechanical study was to investigate the stability of a delta configuration for SJA utilizing either a combination of a posterior CCHS and an anterior CCS or a standard two-CCS combination. Materials and Methods: Twelve paired human cadaveric lower legs were assigned pairwise to two groups for SJA using either two CCSs (Group 1) or one posterior CCHS and one anterior CCS (Group 2). All specimens were tested under progressively increasing cyclic loading to failure, with monitoring of the talocalcaneal movements via motion tracking. Results: Initial stiffness did not differ significantly between the groups, p = 0.949. Talocalcaneal movements in terms of varus-valgus deformation and internal-external rotation were significantly bigger in Group 1 versus Group 2, p ≤ 0.026. Number of cycles until reaching 5° varus-valgus deformation was significantly higher in Group 2 versus Group 1, p = 0.029. Conclusions: A delta-configuration SJA utilizing a posterior CCHS and an anterior CCS is biomechanically superior versus a standard configuration with two CCSs. Clinically, the use of a posterior CCHS could prevent protrusion of the hardware in the heel, while an anterior CCS could facilitate less surgical time and thus less complication rates.

Evaluation of Cannulated Compression Headless Screw (CCHS) as an alternative implant in comparison to standard S1-S2 screw fixation of the posterior pelvis ring: a biomechanical study.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Posterior pelvis ring injuries represent typical high-energy trauma injuries in young adults. Joint stabilization with two cannulated sacroiliac (SI) screws at the level of sacral vertebrae S1 and S2 is a well-established procedure. However, high failure- and implant removal (IR) rates have been reported. Especially, the washer recovery can pose the most difficult part of the IR surgery, which is often associated with complications. The aim of this biomechanical study was to evaluate the stability of S1-S2 fixation of the SI joint using three different screw designs. METHODS: Eighteen artificial hemi-pelvises were assigned to three groups (n = 6) for SI joint stabilization through S1 and S2 corridors using either two 7.5 mm cannulated compression headless screws (group CCH), two 7.3 mm partially threaded SI screws (group PT), or two 7.3 mm fully threaded SI screws (group FT). An SI joint dislocation injury type III APC according to the Young and Burgess classification was simulated before implantation. All specimens were biomechanically tested to failure in upright standing position under progressively increasing cyclic loading. Interfragmentary and bone-implant movements were captured via motion tracking and evaluated at four time points between 4000 and 7000 cycles. RESULTS: Combined interfragmentary angular displacement movements in coronal and transverse plane between ilium and sacrum, evaluated over the measured four time points, were significantly bigger in group FT versus both groups CCH and PT, p ≤ 0.047. In addition, angular displacement of the screw axis within the ilium under consideration of both these planes was significantly bigger in group FT versus group PT, p = 0.038. However, no significant differences were observed among the groups for screw tip cutout movements in the sacrum, p = 0.321. Cycles to failure were highest in group PT (9885 ± 1712), followed by group CCH (9820 ± 597), and group FT (7202 ± 1087), being significantly lower in group FT compared to both groups CCH and PT, p ≤ 0.027. CONCLUSION: From a biomechanical perspective, S1-S2 SI joint fixation using two cannulated compression headless screws or two partially threaded SI screws exhibited better interfragmentary stability compared to two fully threaded SI screws. The former can therefore be considered as a valid alternative to standard SI screw fixation in posterior pelvis ring injuries. In addition, partially threaded screw fixation was associated with less bone-implant movements versus fully threaded screw fixation. Further human cadaveric biomechanical studies with larger sample size should be initiated to understand better the potential of cannulated compression headless screw fixation for the therapy of the injured posterior pelvis ring in young trauma patients.

Anterior variable-angle locked plating versus tension band wiring of simple and complex patella fractures - a biomechanical investigation.

BACKGROUND: The aim of this study was to investigate the biomechanical performance of novel anterior variable-angle locking plates versus tension band wiring used for fixation of simple and complex patella fractures. METHODS: Sixteen pairs of human cadaveric knees were used to simulate two-part simple transverse AO/OTA 34-C1 and five-part complex AO/OTA 34-C3 patella fractures. The complex fracture pattern was characterized with a medial and a lateral proximal fragment, together with an inferomedial, an inferolateral and an inferior fragment mimicking comminution around the distal patella pole. Eight pairs with simple fractures were split for fixation via either tension band wiring (TBW) through two parallel cannulated screws or anterior variable-angle locked plating, whereas other eight pairs with complex fractures were split for either TBW through two parallel cannulated screws plus circumferential cerclage wiring, or anterior variable-angle locked plating using a cortical caudo-cranial polar screw. Each specimen was tested over 5000 cycles with a range of motion from 90° flexion to full extension by pulling on the quadriceps tendon. Interfragmentary movements were captured by motion tracking. RESULTS: For both fracture types, the longitudinal and shear articular displacements, measured between the proximal and distal fragments at the central patella aspect between 1000 and 5000 cycles, together with the relative rotations of these fragments around the mediolateral axis were all significantly smaller following anterior variable-angle locked plating versus TBW, p ≤ 0.01. CONCLUSIONS: From a biomechanical perspective, anterior locked plating of both simple and complex patella fractures resulted in less interfragmentary displacement under extended cyclic loading.

Superior fixation strength of coronoid process replacement using individually designed 3D printed prosthesis with curved cemented intramedullary stem.

BACKGROUND: Coronoid fractures frequently occur as part of complex elbow injuries and account for 2%-15% of the cases with dislocations. Comminuted fractures and nonunions necessitate surgical treatment. Considering the latest technological advancements, the aim of this study was to investigate the fixation strength of coronoid replacement using an individualized 3D printed prosthesis with curved cemented intramedullary (IM) stem vs. both radial head grafted reconstruction and coronoid fixation. METHODS: Twenty-four human cadaveric paired forearms were stripped of soft tissue and their computed tomography scanned ulnas were randomized to 4 groups for coronoid replacement (prosthesis group), radial head grafted reconstruction (radial head group), fixation (fixation group), or no treatment (intact group). The ulnas in all groups, except the intact one, were osteotomized at 40% of the coronoid height and the coronoid process was either replaced with a 3D printed stainless-steel prosthesis with curved cemented IM stem individually designed based on the contralateral scan (prosthesis group), reconstructed with an ipsilateral radial head autograft fixed with 2 anteroposterior screws (radial head group), or fixed in situ with 2 anteroposterior screws (fixation group). All specimens were biomechanically tested under ramped quasistatic axial loading. RESULTS: Bone mineral density was not significantly different among the groups (P = .95). Stiffness and failure load in the prosthesis group was significantly higher compared to all other groups (P ≤ .04) and in addition, it was significantly lower in the fixation group compared to the intact group (P = .03), with no further detected significant differences among the groups (P ≥ .72). Absorbed energy to failure in the prosthesis group was significantly more compared to both radial head and fixation groups (P ≤ .04) but not vs. the intact group. Failure deformation at the osteotomy site was not significantly different among the groups (P = .26). CONCLUSIONS: Coronoid process replacement using an anatomically shaped, individually designed 3D printed prosthesis with curved cemented IM stem seems to be an effective method to restore the coronoid buttress function under axial loading. This method provides superior fixation strength over both radial head grafted reconstruction and screw fixation.

Evaluation of cannulated compression headless screws as an alternative implant for superior pubic ramus fracture fixation: a biomechanical study.

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE: Pubic ramus fractures account for the most common types of pelvic fractures. The standard surgical approach for superior pubic ramus fractures (SPRF) is a minimally invasive percutaneous screw fixation. However, percutaneous closed reduction and internal fixation of anterior pelvic ring injuries have high failure rates of up to 15%. The aim of this biomechanical study was to evaluate the stability of SPRF following stabilization with retrograde placed cannulated compression headless screw (CCHS) versus conventional fully and partially threaded screws in an artificial pelvic bone model. METHODS: SPRF type II as described by Nakatani et al. was created by means of osteotomies in eighteen anatomical composite hemi-pelvises. Specimens were stratified into three groups of six specimens each (n = 6) for fixation with either a 7.3 mm partially threaded cannulated screw (group RST), a 7.3 mm fully threaded cannulated screw (group RSV), or a 7.5 mm partially threaded cannulated CCHS (group CCS). Each hemi-pelvic specimen was tested in an inverted upright standing position under progressively increasing cyclic axial loading. The peak load, starting at 200 N, was monotonically increased at a rate of 0.1 N/cycle until 10 mm actuator displacement. RESULTS: Total and torsional displacement were associated with higher values for RST versus CCS and RSV, with significant differences between RST and CCS for both these parameters (p ≤ 0.033). The differences between RST and RSV were significant for total displacement (p = 0.020), and a trend toward significance for torsional displacement (p = 0.061) was observed. For both failure criteria 2 mm total displacement and 5° torsional displacement, CCS was associated with significantly higher number of cycles compared to RST (p ≤ 0.040). CONCLUSION: CCHS fixation presented predominantly superior stability to the standard surgical treatment and could therefore be a possible alternative implant for retrograde SPRF screw fixation, whereas partially threaded screws in group RST were associated with inferior biomechanical stability.

Biomechanical analysis of helical versus straight plating of proximal third humeral shaft fractures.

BACKGROUND: Proximal humeral shaft fractures are surgically challenging and plate osteosynthesis with a long straight plate is one operative treatment option in these patients although endangering the radial nerve distally. Helical plates potentially avoid the radial nerve by twisting around the humeral shaft. Aim of the study was to investigate in a human cadaveric model the biomechanical competence of helical plates versus straight lateral plates used for fixation of proximal third comminuted humeral shaft fractures. METHODS: Eight pairs of humeral cadaveric humeri were instrumented using either a long 90°-helical plate (Group1) or a straight long PHILOS plate (Group2). An unstable proximal humeral shaft fracture was simulated by means of a 5 cm osteotomy gap. All specimens were tested under quasi-static loading in axial compression, internal and external rotation, and bending in four directions. Subsequently, progressively increasing cyclic loading in internal rotation until failure was applied and interfragmentary movements were monitored by motion tracking. RESULTS: During static testing flexion/extension deformation in Group1 was significantly higher, however, varus/valgus deformation as well as shear and torsional displacement under torsional load remained statistically indifferent between both groups. During cyclic testing shear and torsional displacements were both significantly higher in Group1 compared to Group 2. However, cycles to catastrophic failure remained statistically indifferent between the groups. CONCLUSIONS: From a biomechanical perspective, although 90°-helical plating is associated with higher initial stability against varus/valgus collapse and comparable endurance under dynamic loading, it demonstrates lower resistance to flexion/extension and internal rotation with bigger shear interfragmentary displacements versus straight lateral plating and, therefore, cannot be considered as its real alternative. Alternative helical plate designs should be investigated in the future.

Is a Washer a Mandatory Component in Young Trauma Patients with S1-S2 Iliosacral Screw Fixation of Posterior Pelvis Ring Injuries? A Biomechanical Study.

Background and purpose: Cannulated screws are standard implants for percutaneous fixa-tion of posterior pelvis ring injuries. The choice of whether to use these screws in combination with a washer is still undecided. The aim of this study was to evaluate the biomechanical competence of S1-S2 sacroiliac (SI) screw fixation with and without using a washer across three different screw designs. Material and Methods: Twenty-four composite pelvises were used and an SI joint injury type APC III according to the Young and Burgess classification was simulated. Fixation of the posterior pelvis ring was performed using either partially threaded short screws, fully threaded short screws, or fully threaded long transsacral screws. Biomechanical testing was performed under progressively increasing cyclic loading until failure, with monitoring of the intersegmental and bone-implant movements via motion tracking. Results: The number of cycles to failure and the corresponding load at failure (N) were significantly higher for the fully threaded short screws with a washer (3972 ± 600/398.6 ± 30.0) versus its counterpart without a washer (2993 ± 527/349.7 ± 26.4), p = 0.026. In contrast, these two parameters did not reveal any significant differences when comparing fixations with and without a washer using either partially threaded short of fully threaded long transsacral screws, p ≥ 0.359. Conclusions: From a biomechanical perspective, a washer could be optional when using partially threaded short or fully threaded long transsacral S1-S2 screws for treatment of posterior pelvis ring injuries in young trauma patients. Yet, the omission of the washer in fully threaded short screws could lead to a significant diminished biomechanical stability.

First Tarsometatarsal Joint Fusion in Foot-A Biomechanical Human Anatomical Specimen Analysis with Use of Low-Profile Nitinol Staples Acting as Continuous Compression Implants.

Background and Objectives: The aim of this study was to investigate under dynamic loading the potential biomechanical benefit of simulated first tarsometatarsal (TMT-1) fusion with low-profile superelastic nitinol staples used as continuous compression implants (CCIs) in two different configurations in comparison to crossed screws and locked plating in a human anatomical model. Materials and Methods: Thirty-two paired human anatomical lower legs were randomized to four groups for TMT-1 treatment via: (1) crossed-screws fixation with two 4.0 mm fully threaded lag screws; (2) plate-and-screw fixation with a 4.0 mm standard fully threaded cortex screw, inserted axially in lag fashion, and a 6-hole TMT-1 Variable-Angle (VA) Fusion Plate 2.4/2.7; (3) CCI fixation with two two-leg staples placed orthogonally to each other; (4) CCI fixation with one two-leg staple and one four-leg staple placed orthogonally to each other. Each specimen was biomechanically tested simulating forefoot weightbearing on the toes and metatarsals. The testing was performed at 35-37 °C under progressively increasing cyclic axial loading until construct failure, accompanied by motion tracking capturing movements in the joints. Results: Combined adduction and dorsiflexion movement of the TMT-1 joint in unloaded foot condition was associated with no significant differences among all pairs of groups (p ≥ 0.128). In contrast, the amplitude of this movement between unloaded and loaded foot conditions within each cycle was significantly bigger for the two CCI fixation techniques compared to both crossed-screws and plate-and-screw techniques (p ≤ 0.041). No significant differences were detected between the two CCI fixation techniques, as well as between the crossed-screws and plate-and-screw techniques (p ≥ 0.493) for this parameter of interest. Furthermore, displacements at the dorsal and plantar aspects of the TMT-1 joint in unloaded foot condition, together with their amplitudes, did not differ significantly among all pairs of groups (p ≥ 0.224). Conclusions: The low-profile superelastic nitinol staples demonstrate comparable biomechanical performance to established crossed-screws and plate-and-screw techniques applied for fusion of the first tarsometatarsal joint.

Antegrade Posterior Column Acetabulum Fracture Screw Fixation via Posterior Approach: A Biomechanical Comparative Study.

Background and Objectives: Minimally invasive surgeries for acetabulum fracture fixation are gaining popularity due to their known advantages versus open reduction and internal fixation. Antegrade or retrograde screw fixation along the long axis of the posterior column of the acetabulum is increasingly applied in surgical practice. While there is sufficient justification in the literature for the application of the anterior approach, there is a deficit of reports related to the posterior approach. The aim of this study was to evaluate the biomechanical competence of posterior column acetabulum fracture fixation through antegrade screw placement using either a standard cannulated screw or a cannulated compression headless screw (CCHS) via posterior approach. Materials and Methods: Eight composite pelvises were used, and a posterior column acetabulum fracture according to the Letournel Classification was simulated on both their left and right sides via an osteotomy. The sixteen hemi-pelvic specimens were assigned to two groups (n = 8) for either posterior column standard screw (group PCSS) or posterior column CCHS (group PCCH) fixation. Biomechanical testing was performed by applying steadily increased cyclic load until failure. Interfragmentary movements were investigated by means of motion tracking. Results: Initial stiffness demonstrated significantly higher values in PCCH (163.1 ± 14.9 N/mm) versus PCSS (133.1 ± 27.5 N/mm), p = 0.024. Similarly, cycles and load at failure were significantly higher in PCCH (7176.7 ± 2057.0 and 917.7 ± 205.7 N) versus PCSS (3661.8 ± 1664.5 and 566.2 ± 166.5 N), p = 0.002. Conclusion: From a biomechanical perspective, CCHS fixation demonstrates superior stability and could be a valuable alternative option to the standard cannulated screw fixation of posterior column acetabulum fractures, thus increasing the confidence in postoperative full weight bearing for both the patient and treating surgeon. Whether uneventful immediate postoperative full weight bearing can be achieved with CCHS fixation should primarily be investigated in further human cadaveric studies with a larger sample size.

A Novel Implant for Superior Pubic Ramus Fracture Fixation-Development and a Biomechanical Feasibility Study.

Background and Objectives: Pubic ramus fractures are common in compound pelvic injuries known to have an increased rate of morbidity and mortality along with recurrent and chronic pain, impeding a patient's quality of life. The current standard treatment of these fractures is percutaneous screw fixation due to its reduced risk of blood loss and shorter surgery times. However, this is an intricate surgical technique associated with high failure rates of up to 15%, related to implant failure and loss of reduction. Therefore, the aim of this biomechanical feasibility study was to develop and test a novel intramedullary splinting implant for fixation of superior pubic ramus fractures (SPRF), and to evaluate its biomechanical viability in comparison with established fixation methods using conventional partially or fully threaded cannulated screws. Materials and Methods: A type II superior pubic ramus fracture according to the Nakatani classification was created in 18 composite hemi-pelvises via a vertical osteotomy with an additional osteotomy in the inferior pubic ramus to isolate the testing of three SPRF fixation techniques performed in 6 semi-pelvises each using either (1) a novel ramus intramedullary splint, (2) a partially threaded ramus screw, or (3) a fully threaded ramus screw. Results: No significant differences were detected among the fixation techniques in terms of initial construct stiffness and number of cycles to failure, p ≥ 0.213. Conclusion: The novel ramus intramedullary splint can be used as an alternative option for treatment of pubic ramus fractures and has the potential to decrease the rate of implant failures due to its minimally invasive implantation procedure.

Helical Plating Compared with Straight Plating and Nailing for Treatment of Proximal Third Humeral Shaft Fractures-A Biomechanical Study.

Background and Objectives: The surgical treatment of proximal humeral shaft fractures usually considers application of either long straight plates or intramedullary nails. By being able to spare the rotator cuff and avoid the radial nerve distally, the implementation of helical plates might overcome the downsides of common fixation methods. The aims of the current study were (1) to explore the biomechanical competence of different plate designs and (2) to compare their performance versus the alternative treatment option of using intramedullary nails. Materials and Methods: Twenty-four artificial humeri were assigned to the following four groups for simulation of an unstable proximal humeral shaft fracture and instrumentation: Group 1 (Straight-PHILOS), Group 2 (MULTILOC-Nail), Group 3 (45°-Helical-PHILOS), and Group 4 (90°-Helical-PHILOS). All specimens underwent non-destructive, quasi-static biomechanical testing under loading in axial compression, torsion in internal/external rotation, and pure bending in four directions, accompanied by motion tracking. Results: Axial stiffness/displacement in Group 2 was significantly higher/smaller than in all other groups (p ≤ 0.010). Torsional displacement in Group 2 was significantly bigger than in all other groups (p ≤ 0.017). Significantly smaller coronal plane displacement was identified in Group 2 versus all other groups (p < 0.001) and in Group 4 versus Group 1 (p = 0.022). Significantly bigger sagittal plane displacement was detected in Group 4 versus all other groups (p ≤ 0.024) and in Group 1 versus Group 2 (p < 0.001). Conclusions: Intramedullary nails demonstrated higher axial stiffness and smaller axial interfragmentary movements compared with all investigated plate designs. However, they were associated with bigger torsional movements at the fracture site. Although 90°-helical plates revealed bigger interfragmentary movements in the sagittal plane, they demonstrated improved resistance against displacements in the coronal plane when compared with straight lateral plates. In addition, 45°-helical plates manifested similar biomechanical competence to straight plates and may be considered a valid alternative to the latter from a biomechanical standpoint.

Treatment of Metaphyseal Defects in Plated Proximal Humerus Fractures with a New Augmentation Technique-A Biomechanical Cadaveric Study.

Background and Objectives: Unstable proximal humerus fractures (PHFs) with metaphyseal defects-weakening the osteosynthesis construct-are challenging to treat. A new augmentation technique of plated complex PHFs with metaphyseal defects was recently introduced in the clinical practice. This biomechanical study aimed to analyze the stability of plated unstable PHFs augmented via implementation of this technique versus no augmentation. Materials and Methods: Three-part AO/OTA 11-B1.1 unstable PHFs with metaphyseal defects were created in sixteen paired human cadaveric humeri (average donor age 76 years, range 66-92 years), pairwise assigned to two groups for locked plate fixation with identical implant configuration. In one of the groups, six-milliliter polymethylmethacrylate bone cement with medium viscosity (seven minutes after mixing) was placed manually through the lateral window in the defect of the humerus head after its anatomical reduction to the shaft and prior to the anatomical reduction of the greater tuberosity fragment. All specimens were tested biomechanically in a 25° adduction, applying progressively increasing cyclic loading at 2 Hz until failure. Interfragmentary movements were monitored by motion tracking and X-ray imaging. Results: Initial stiffness was not significantly different between the groups, p = 0.467. Varus deformation of the humerus head fragment, fracture displacement at the medial humerus head aspect, and proximal screw migration and cut-out were significantly smaller in the augmented group after 2000, 4000, 6000, 8000 and 10,000 cycles, p ≤ 0.019. Cycles to 5° varus deformation of the humerus head fragment-set as a clinically relevant failure criterion-and failure load were significantly higher in the augmented group, p = 0.018. Conclusions: From a biomechanical standpoint, augmentation with polymethylmethacrylate bone cement placed in the metaphyseal humerus head defect of plated unstable PHFs considerably enhances fixation stability and can reduce the risk of postoperative complications.

Volar versus combined dorsal and volar plate fixation of complex intraarticular distal radius fractures with small dorsoulnar fragment - a biomechanical study.

Complex intraarticular distal radius fractures (DRFs), commonly managed with volar locking plates, are challenging. Combined volar and dorsal plating is frequently applied for treatment, however, biomechanical investigations are scant. The aim of this biomechanical study was to investigate volar plating versus double plating in DRFs with different degrees of lunate facet comminution.Thirty artificial radii with simulated AO/OTA 23-C2.1 and C3.1 DRFs, including dorsal defect and lunate facet comminution, were assigned to 3 groups: Group 1 with two equally-sized lunate facet fragments; Group 2 with small dorsal and large volar fragment; Group 3 with three equally-sized fragments. The specimens underwent volar and double locked plating and non-destructive ramped loading in 0° neutral position, 40° flexion and 40° extension.In each tested position, stiffness: (1) did not significantly differ among groups with same fixation method (p ≥ 0.15); (2) increased significantly after supplemental dorsal plating in Group 2 and Group 3 (p ≤ 0.02).Interfragmentary displacements between styloid process and lunate facet in neutral position were below 0.5 mm, being not significantly different among groups and plating techniques (p ≥ 0.63).Following volar plating, angular displacement of the lunate facet to radius shaft was significantly lower in Group 1 versus both Group 2 and Group 3 (p < 0.01). It decreased significantly after supplemental dorsal plating in Group 2 and Group 3 (p < 0.01), but not in Group 1 (p ≥ 0.13), and did not differ significantly among the three groups after double plating (p ≥ 0.74).Comminution of the lunate facet within its dorsal third significantly affected the biomechanical outcomes related to complex intraarticular DRFs treated with volar and double locked plates.Double plating demonstrates superior stability versus volar plating only for lunate facet comminution within its dorsal third. In contrast, volar plating could achieve stability comparable with double plating when the dorsal third of the lunate facet is not separated by the fracture pattern. Both fixation methods indicated achievable absolute stability between the articular fragments.

Influence of screw head diameter on ex vivo fixation of equine lateral condylar fractures with 5.5 mm cortical screws.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the influence of screw head diameter on equine condylar fracture fixation with 5.5 mm cortical screws. STUDY DESIGN: Ex vivo, biomechanical study, blinded, matched-pair design. SAMPLE POPULATION: Fifteen pairs of equine third metacarpal (MC3) bones. METHODS: Lateral condylar fractures were simulated by parasagittal osteotomies and repaired pairwise by 2 × 5.5 mm cortical screws of 8 mm (standard) or 10 mm (modified) head diameter. Interfragmentary compression at maximum screw insertion torque was measured. The instrumented specimens were pairwise stratified for biomechanical testing under the following modalities (n = 5): (1) screw insertion torque to failure, (2) quasi-static axial load to failure, and (3) cyclic axial load to 2 mm displacement followed by failure. Tests (1) and (2) were analyzed for yield, maximum, and failure torque/angle and load/displacement, respectively. Number of cycles to 2 mm displacement and failure was assessed from test (3). RESULTS: Maximum insertion torque was greater, and failure angle smaller, when constructs repaired with modified screws were tested (8.1 ± 0.5 vs. 7.4 ± 0.5 Nm; P = .0047 and 550 ± 104 vs. 1130 ± 230; P = .008). Axial yield (7118 ± 707 vs. 5740 ± 2267 N; P = .043) and failure load (12 347 ± 3359 vs. 8695 ± 2277 N; P = .043) were greater for specimens repaired with modified screws. No difference was detected between constructs in the number of cycles to 2 mm displacement. CONCLUSION: Condylar MC3 osteotomies repaired with modified 5.5 mm cortical screws sustained greater maximal hand torque insertion, smaller insertion failure angle and 1.4 fold greater quasi-static failure forces than constructs repaired with standard 5.5 mm screws. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE: Use of modified screws with larger heads may improve the fixation of condylar fractures in horses. These results provide evidence to justify clinical evaluation in horses undergoing fracture repair.