Live Cells versus Fixated Cells: Kinetic Measurements of Biomolecular Interactions with the LigandTracer Method and Surface Plasmon Resonance Microscopy.

Cell-based kinetic studies of ligand or candidate drug binding to membrane proteins have produced affinity and kinetic values that are different from measurements using purified proteins. However, ligand binding to fixated cells whose membrane constituents (e.g., proteins and their glycosylated forms) are partially connected by a cross-linking reagent has not been compared to that to live cells. Under the same experimental conditions for the LigandTracer method, we measured the interactions of fluorophore-labeled lectins and antibody molecules with glycans at HFF cells and the human epithelial growth receptor 2 at SKBR3 cells, respectively. In conjunction with surface plasmon resonance microscopy, the effects of labels and cell/sub-cell heterogeneity on binding kinetics were investigated. Our results revealed that, for cell constituents whose structures and functions are not closely dependent on cell viability, the ligand binding kinetics at fixated cells is only slightly different from that at live cells. The altered kinetics is explained on the basis of a less mobile receptor confined in a local environment created by partially interconnected protein molecules. We show that cell/sub-cell heterogeneity and labels on the ligands can alter the binding reaction more significantly. Thus, fixating cells not only simplifies experimental procedures for drug screening and renders assays more robust but also provides reliable kinetic information about drug binding to cell constituents whose structures are not changed by chemical fixation.

Microfluidically Partitioned Dual Channels for Accurate Background Subtraction in Cellular Binding Studies by Surface Plasmon Resonance Microscopy.

Unlike conventional surface plasmon resonance (SPR) using an antifouling film to anchor biomolecules and a reference channel for background subtraction, SPR microscopy for single-cell analysis uses a protein- or polypeptide-modified gold substrate to immobilize cells and a cell-free area as the reference. In this work, we show that such a substrate is prone to nonspecific adsorption (NSA) of species from the cell culture media, resulting in false background signals that cannot be correctly subtracted. To obtain accurate kinetic results, we patterned a dual-channel substrate using a microfluidic device, with one channel having poly-l-lysine deposited in situ onto a preformed polyethylene glycol (PEG) self-assembled monolayer for cell immobilization and the other channel remaining as PEG-covered for reference. The two 2.0 mm-wide channels are separated by a 75 µm barrier, and parts of the channels can be readily positioned into the field of view of an SPR microscope. The use of this dual-channel substrate for background subtraction is contrasted with the conventional approach through the following binding studies: (1) wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) attachment to the N-acetyl glucosamine and N-acetyl-neuraminic acid sites of glycans on HFF cells, and (2) the S1 protein of the COVID-19 virus conjugation with angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on the HEK293 cells. Both studies revealed that interferences by NSA and the surface plasmon polariton wave diffracted by cells can be excluded with the dual-channel substrate, and the much smaller refractive index changes caused by the injected solutions can be correctly subtracted. Consequently, sensorgrams with higher signal-to-noise ratios and shapes predicted by the correct binding model can be obtained with accurate kinetic and affinity parameters that are more biologically relevant. The affinity between S1 protein and ACE2 is comparable to that measured with recombinant ACE2, yet the binding kinetics is different, suggesting that the cell membrane does impose a kinetic barrier to their interaction.

Interference-free photoelectrochemical immunoassays using carboxymethylated dextran-coated and gold-modified TiO2 nanotube arrays.

An interference-free photoelectrochemical (PEC) immunoassay was developed for cardiac troponin I (cTnI) detection. Covalent linkage of cTnI antibody to carboxymethylated (CM-) dextran pre-immobilized onto a gold nanoparticles (AuNPs)-modified TiO2 nanotube array (NTA) affords five consecutive analyte captures with surface regenerations in between. Changes in the photocurrents at this photoanode before and after cTnI captures can be well fitted with the Langmuir isotherm from 0.220 pM to 2.20 nM cTnI. Owing to the inherently high sensitivity of the PEC detection, the detection limit (2.20 pg/mL) is lower than the range attainable with the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) (6.00-40.0 pg/mL). Furthermore, CM-dextran prevents species in complex biological matrices from nonspecifically adsorbing onto the sensor surface, a feature not attainable with uncoated semiconductor electrodes or those coated with non-hydrogel-based chemical modifiers. The excellent anti-fouling property of dextran hydrogel allowed us to validate the accuracy of our regenerable sensors through a comparison of PEC immunoassays of patient sera to those of ELISA.

Four-Channel Photothermal Plate Reader for High-Throughput Nanoparticle-Amplified Immunoassay.

We enhanced the sample throughput of microplate-based photothermal detection by using a semicylindrical prism to expand a point laser source to a long beam for illuminating multiple wells. Coupled with four epoxy-coated thermocouples in alignment with wells on a 96-well microplate, four parallel immunoassays of C-reaction protein (CRP) with antibody-conjugated gold nanoparticles can be simultaneously performed. The sample throughput is further increased by mounting the Styrofoam-enclosed microplate onto a translational/elevator stage so that immunoassays and thermocouple rinse/drying cycles can be implemented in a programmed fashion. The automated assay with three rinse/drying cycles takes only 34.5 min for four samples or 8.62 min/sample, whereas the manual mode with a single thermocouple and a point light source requires at least 66 min for just one sample. With careful calibration of the energy distribution of the expanded laser beam and controllable immersion of the thermocouples, excellent well-to-well (RSD = 1.3%) and cycle-to-cycle (RSD = 4.0%) reproducibility can be attained. The temperature changes can be correlated with the CRP concentration by the Langmuir isotherm, and the low limit of detection, 0.52 ng/mL or 4.33 pM, is well below the plasma CRP levels of both healthy people (<5 µg/mL) and patients (10-500 µg/mL). The serum CRP concentrations quantified by our plate reader are in excellent agreement with the immunoturbidimetric results, demonstrating that this cost-effective, robust, and high-throughput mode for microplate-based immunoassays is amenable to detecting biomarkers in many clinical samples.

Stable and Photothermally Efficient Antibody-Covered Cu3(PO4)2@Polydopamine Nanocomposites for Sensitive and Cost-Effective Immunoassays.

Polydopamine (PDA)-coated or encapsulating Cu3(PO4)2 (Cu3(PO4)2@PDA) nanosheets were synthesized, allowing the C-reaction protein (CRP) antibody to be attached electrostatically for immunosensing of CRP with simple photothermal detection. The antibody-covered Cu3(PO4)2@PDA nanosheets replace the antibody-conjugated enzyme in the enzyme-linked immunosorbant assays. Owing to the high surface area of the 2-D-structured Cu3(PO4)2@PDA nanosheets and the coabsorption of light in the near-IR spectrum by Cu3(PO4)2 and PDA, a small amount of Cu3(PO4)2@PDA confined in the wells of a titer plate generates an easily detectable temperature change after irradiation at 808 nm. The temperature changes, measured by an inexpensive pen-type thermometer, increased linearly with the analyte concentration from 0.42 to 16 pM. We found that the linear relationship can be fitted by the isotherm derived from responses collected from heterogeneous sensors covered with different ligand or antibody densities. The low detection limit (0.11 pM) is largely due to the attachment of a great number of antibodies onto the flat nanosheets. The antibody-covered Cu3(PO4)2@PDA nanosheets are stable and can be used under conditions that are generally unfavorable to enzymatic activities. The excellent agreement between our results and immunoturbidimetric assays of CRP in serum samples from patients and healthy donors demonstrates its utility for disease diagnosis in clinical settings. This cost-effective, biocompatible, and convenient photothermal immunosensor affords a range of possibilities for detecting diverse protein biomarkers.

Surface plasmon resonance and cytotoxicity assays of drug efficacies predicted computationally to inhibit p53/MDM2 interaction.

Docking on the p53-binding site of murine double minute 2 (MDM2) by small molecules restores p53's tumor-suppressor function. We previously assessed 3244 FDA-approved drugs via "computational conformer selection" for inhibiting MDM2 and p53 interaction. Here, we developed a surface plasmon resonance method to experimentally confirm the inhibitory effects of the known MDM2 inhibitor, nutlin-3a, and two drug candidates predicted by our computational method. This p53/MDM2 interaction displayed a dosage-dependent weakening when MDM2 is pre-mixed with drug candidates. The inhibition efficiency order is nutlin-3a (IC50 = 97 nM) > bepridil (206 nM) > azelastine (307 nM). Furthermore, we verified their anti-proliferation effects on SJSA-1 (wild-type p53 and overexpressed MDM2), SW480 (mutated p53), and SaOs-2 (deleted p53) cancer cell lines. The inhibitory order towards SJSA-1 cell line is nutlin-3a (IC50 = 0.8 µM) > bepridil (23 µM) > azelastine (25 µM). Our experimental results are in line with the computational prediction, and the higher IC50 values from the cell-based assays are due to the requirement of higher drug concentrations to penetrate cell membranes. The anti-proliferation effects of bepridil and azelastine on the cell lines with mutated and deleted p53 implied some p53-independent anti-proliferation effects.

Covalent affixation of histidine-tagged proteins tethered onto Ni-nitrilotriacetic acid sensors for enhanced surface plasmon resonance detection of small molecule drugs and kinetic studies of antibody/antigen interactions.

The Ni2+-histidine (His) chelation yields a more uniform and predicable orientation of immobilized protein molecules than an amine-coupling reaction in surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analyses. However, the gradual dissociation of His-tagged proteins leads to a long and sloped baseline, which adversely affects kinetic studies. Furthermore, as shown in this work for the first time, the strong binding affinity between the histidine-rich Fc domain of immunoglobulin-type antibodies and Ni-nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) interferes with the kinetic studies of these antibodies and their His-tagged antigens. By performing an amine-coupling reaction immediately after the Ni2+-His chelation, essentially all of the Ni2+-tethered protein molecules can be covalently linked to the carboxyl groups on the underlying carboxymethylated dextran surface. The sequential injections of pH 8.6 phosphate-buffered saline provided additional time to ensure a higher amine coupling efficiency and reverted NHS esters on the protein molecules to carboxyl groups. The application of our method to antibody/antigen interactions is demonstrated with the kinetic analysis of His-tagged t-DARPP protein/anti-t-DARPP interactions. In a separate experiment, the highly efficient immobilization method resulted in a higher immobilization density of His-tagged human carbonic anhydrase (HCA) II, affording accurate kinetic measurements for the binding of 4-carboxybenzenesulfonamide. In addition, the higher HCA II density enhanced the SPR sensitivity, allowing 4-carboxybenzenesulfonamide to be determined with a remarkable detection limit (14 nM).

Dual-Valve and Counter-Flow Surface Plasmon Resonance.

Two six-port injector valves and one selector valve commonly used in flow injection analysis are combined with a surface plasmon resonance (SPR) instrument wherein solutions introduced from the two inlets counter-flow inside the flow cell. The system is versatile as the same or different solutions can be rapidly and repeatedly introduced to the two fluidic channels in series or in parallel. Unlike most commercial SPR instruments employing a single injector valve, solutions separately injected from the two injector valves can be readily exchanged (<1 s) between the two channels. This new method, referred to as the alternate injection mode, not only saves analysis time but also facilitates efficient and facile surface reactions for ligand immobilization and prevents immobilized species from desorbing. These advantages are demonstrated with the measurements of binding of acetazolamide (222.2 Da) to histidine-tagged human carbonic anhydrase II (his-tagged HCA). Amine-containing residues of his-tagged HCA molecules tethered at Ni-nitrilotriacetic acid (NTA) sensors were rapidly cross-linked to the underlying carboxymethylated dextran. The higher ligand densities and more stable surfaces are essential for SPR detection of small molecule binding. In a different application, microglobulin solutions of increasing concentrations were introduced for continuous binding to the preimmobilized antibody. The kinetic and affinity measurements can be conducted without performing repeated dissociation and surface regeneration reactions.

Enzyme-Free Immunosorbent Assay of Prostate Specific Antigen Amplified by Releasing pH Indicator Molecules Entrapped in Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles.

An enzyme-free titer plate-based colorimetric assay utilizing functionalized mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) entrapping pH-indicator molecules has been developed. Pores in the silica nanoparticles were functionalized with phenyltrimethyloxysilane so that pH indicator molecules (thymolphthalein or TP in the present case) can be tightly entrapped through π-π conjugation. To detect prostate specific antigen (PSA), the TP-containing MSNs were coated with polyethylenimine (PEI), which favors the attachment of the negatively charged secondary anti-PSA antibody. The entrapped thymolphthalein molecules can be readily released from the pores with a simple addition of alkaline solution. The resultant bifunctional MSNs were used for signal-amplified detection of PSA captured by the primary antibody preimmobilized in the wells of a plate. Our method possesses a wide dynamic range (0.5 to 8000 pg/mL) wherein the adsorption of the bifunctional MSNs obeys a modified Langmuir isotherm. A detection limit (LOD) down to as low as 0.36 pg/mL can be attained. Owing to the size uniformity of the MSNs and the obviation of enzyme molecules employed in the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), excellent reproducibility (RSD = 1.12%) was achieved. The selective detection of PSA in human serum samples demonstrates the amenability of our method to detect important biomarkers in complex biological samples, whereas the performance of the assay in a titer plate ensures high throughput and obviates the use of expensive instruments. Both of these features are prerequisites for clinical settings wherein a great number of samples need to be analyzed in a timely fashion.

Sensitive and simultaneous surface plasmon resonance detection of free and p53-bound MDM2 proteins from human sarcomas.

Murine double minute 2 (MDM2) is an oncoprotein mediating the degradation of the tumor suppressor p53 protein. The physiological levels of MDM2 protein are closely related to malignant transformation and tumor growth. In this work, the simultaneous and label-free determination of free and p53-bound MDM2 proteins from sarcoma tissue extracts was conducted using a dual-channel surface plasmon resonance (SPR) instrument. Free MDM2 protein was measured in one fluidic channel covered with the consensus double-stranded (ds)-DNA/p53 conjugate, while MDM2 bound to p53 was captured by the consensus ds-DNA immobilized onto the other channel. To achieve higher sensitivity and to confirm specificity, an MDM2-specific monoclonal antibody (2A10) was used to recognize both the free and p53-bound MDM2 proteins. The resultant method afforded a detection limit of 0.55 pM of MDM2. The amenability of the method to the analysis of free and p53-bound MDM2 proteins was demonstrated for normal and sarcoma tissue extracts from three patients. Our data reveal that both free and total MDM2 (free and bound forms combined) proteins from sarcoma tissue extracts are of much higher concentrations than those from normal tissue extracts and the p53-bound MDM2 protein only constitutes a small fraction of the total MDM2 concentration. In comparison with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), the proposed method possesses higher sensitivity, is more cost-effective, and is capable of determining free and p53-bound MDM2 proteins in clinical samples.

One-Step Ligand Immobilization and Single Sample Injection for Regeneration-Free Surface Plasmon Resonance Measurements of Biomolecular Interactions.

Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) has been well established as a method of choice for label-free kinetic measurements of biomolecular interactions. The conventional approach involves multiple injections of an analyte of different concentrations into a fluidic channel covered with a fixed ligand density. Optimization of the experimental conditions and assessment of the data quality can be complicated by issues such as disruption of the ligand structure by the regeneration step and the limited availability of the sample solution. By sequentially closing fluidic channels on a five-channel SPR instrument, different densities of a ligand can be immobilized and determined in one step. With a subsequent injection of a single sample solution, SPR sensorgrams can be simultaneously collected to yield binding and dissociation rate constants (ka and kd) and dissociation constant (KD) between the ligand and analyte. For biomolecular interactions that obey the Langmuir isotherm, we show that the fidelity of the kinetic data can only be reliably confirmed when there exists a strong linear correlation between the SPR signals and the ligand densities. The use of a multichannel SPR instrument also obviates the regeneration step, allowing the binding kinetics between the green fluorescent protein and its antibody to be measured. In comparison to the conventional approach, the method simplifies the experimental procedure, reduces costs associated with sensor chips and biological samples, expedites kinetic measurements, and allows affinity constants to be determined more straightforwardly.

An improved Bathocuproine assay for accurate valence identification and quantification of copper bound by biomolecules.

Copper is an essential metal in all organisms. Reliably quantifying and identifying the copper content and oxidation state is crucial, since the information is essential to understanding protein structure and function. Chromophoric ligands, such as Bathocuproine (BC) and its water-soluble analog, Bathocuproinedisulfonic acid (BCS), preferentially bind Cu(I) over Cu(II), and therefore have been widely used as optical probes to determine the oxidation state of copper bound by biomolecules. However, the BCS assay is commonly misused, leading to erroneous conclusions regarding the role of copper in biological processes. By measuring the redox potential of Cu(II)-BCS2 and conducting UV-vis absorption measurements in the presence of oxidizable amino acids, the thermodynamic origin of the potential artifacts becomes evident. The BCS assay was improved by introducing a strong Cu(II) chelator EDTA prior to the addition of BCS to prevent interference that might arise from Cu(II) present in the sample. The strong Cu(II) chelator rids of all the potential errors inherent in the conventional BCS assay. Applications of the improved assay to peptides and protein containing oxidizable amino acid residues confirm that free Cu(II) no longer leads to artifacts, thereby resolving issues related to this persistently misused colorimetric assay of Cu(I) in biological systems.

Identification of cellular targets of a series of boron heterocycles using TIPA II-A sensitive target identification platform.

One of the hurdles in the discovery of antibiotics is the difficulty of linking antibacterial compounds to their cellular targets. Our laboratory has employed a genome-wide approach of over-expressing essential genes in order to identify cellular targets of antibacterial inhibitors. Our objective in this project was to develop and validate a more sensitive disk diffusion based platform of target identification (Target Identification Platform for Antibacterials version 2; TIPA II) using a collection of cell clones in an Escherichia coli mutant (AS19) host with increased outer membrane permeability. Five known antibiotics/inhibitors and 28 boron heterocycles were tested by TIPA II assay, in conjunction with the original assay TIPA. The TIPA II was more sensitive than TIPA because eight boron heterocycles previously found to be inactive to AG1 cells in TIPA assays exhibited activity to AS19 cells. For 15 boron heterocycles, resistant colonies were observed within the zones of inhibition only on the inducing plates in TIPA II assays. DNA sequencing confirmed that resistant clones harbor plasmids with fabI gene as insert, indicating that these boron heterocycles all target enoyl ACP reductase. Additionally, cell-based assays and dose response curved obtained indicated that for two boron heterocycle inhibitors, the fabI cell clone in AG1 (wild-type) host cells exhibited at least 11 fold more resistance under induced conditions than under non-induced conditions. Moreover, TIPA II also identified cellular targets of known antibacterial inhibitors triclosan, phosphomycin, trimethoprim, diazaborine and thiolactomycin, further validating the utility of the new system.

Ca(2+) Interacts with Glu-22 of Aß(1-42) and Phospholipid Bilayers to Accelerate the Aß(1-42) Aggregation Below the Critical Micelle Concentration.

The amyloid cascade hypothesis links the amyloid-ß (Aß) peptide aggregation to neuronal cell damage and ultimately the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although Aß aggregation has been known to accelerate at cell membranes, the exact mechanism of Aß peptide deposition and the involvement of extracellular species are still largely unclear. Using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and atomic force microscopy (AFM), we demonstrate that Ca(2+) ions, in conjunction with lipid bilayer, lower the threshold concentration for Aß aggregation (>a few micromolar in vitro) to physiological levels (low nanomolar). Circular dichroism spectroscopy reveals that Ca(2+) ions and the lipid bilayer concertedly accelerate the conformational change or misfolding of Aß peptides. Molecular dynamics calculation indicates that Ca(2+) is sandwiched between Glu-22 of Aß and the lipid phosphate group. SPR experiments conducted using an E22G mutant confirmed the strong interaction among Ca(2+), Aß(1-42), and the phospholipid bilayer. With the C- and N-termini of the Aß dimer fully exposed for the attachment of additional Aß molecules, fibrils formed with the Ca(2+)-anchored Aß nuclei appear to interact with lipid bilayers differently from those preformed in solution. Thus, similar to the role of Ca(2+) in enriching islet amyloid polypeptides in the pancreas of diabetic patients ( Biophys. J. 2013 , 104 , 173 - 184 ) and the "Ca(2+) bridge" in mediating membrane interaction with α-synuclein in the Parkinson's disease ( Biochemistry , 2006 , 45 , 10947 - 10956 ), the influence of Ca(2+) on the Aß adsorption at cell membranes, which leads to neuronal membrane damage in AD, cannot be overlooked.

Continuous nanoflow-scanning electrochemical microscopy: voltammetric characterization and application for accurate and reproducible imaging of enzyme-labeled protein microarrays.

The coupling of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) to a continuous nanoflow (CNF) system is accomplished with the use of a microconcentric ring electrode/injector probe. The gold microring electrode encapsulated by a glass sheath is robust and can be beveled and polished. The CNF system, comprising a precision gas displacement pump and a rotary valve, is capable of delivering solution to the center of the SECM probe in the range of 1-150 nL/min. Major advantages of the CNF-SECM imaging mode over the conventional SECM generation/collection (G/C) mode include higher imaging resolution, immunity from interferences by species in the bulk solution or at other sites of the substrate, elimination of the feedback current that could interfere with the G/C data interpretation, and versatility of initiating surface reactions/processes via introducing different reactants into the flowing stream. Parameters such as flow rates, probe/substrate separations, and collection efficiencies are examined and optimized. Higher resolution, reproducibility, and accuracy are demonstrated through the application of CNF-SECM to horseradish peroxidase (HRP)-amplified imaging of protein microarrays. By flowing H2O2 and ferrocenemethanol through the injector and detecting the surface-generated ferriceniummethanol, human IgG spots covered with HPR-labeled antihuman IgG can be detected in the range of 13 nM-1.333 µM with a detection limit of 3.0 nM. In addition, consistent images of microarray spots for selective and high-density detection of analytes can be attained.

Dyes and Redox Couples with Matched Energy Levels: Elimination of the Dye-Regeneration Energy Loss in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells.

In dye-sensitized solar cells (DSSCs), a significant dye-regeneration force (ΔG(reg)(0)≥0.5 eV) is usually required for effective dye regeneration, which results in a major energy loss and limits the energy-conversion efficiency of state-of-art DSSCs. We demonstrate that when dye molecules and redox couples that possess similar conjugated ligands are used, efficient dye regeneration occurs with zero or close-to-zero driving force. By using Ru(dcbpy)(bpy)2(2+) as the dye and Ru(bpy)2(MeIm)2(3+//2+) as the redox couple, a short-circuit current (J(sc)) of 4 mA cm(-2) and an open-circuit voltage (V(oc)) of 0.9 V were obtained with a ΔG(reg)(0) of 0.07 eV. The same was observed for the N3 dye and Ru(bpy)2(SCN)2(1+/0) (ΔG(reg)(0)=0.0 eV), which produced an J(sc) of 2.5 mA cm(-2) and V(oc) of 0.6 V. Charge recombination occurs at pinholes, limiting the performance of the cells. This proof-of-concept study demonstrates that high V(oc) values can be attained by significantly curtailing the dye-regeneration force.

Polymorphic Associations and Structures of the Cross-Seeding of Aß1-42 and hIAPP1-37 Polypeptides.

Emerging evidence have shown that the patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) often have a higher risk of later developing type II diabetes (T2D), and vice versa, suggesting a potential pathological link between AD and T2D. Amyloid-ß (Aß) and human islet amyloid polypeptide (hIAPP) are the principle causative components responsible for the pathologies of AD and T2D, respectively. The cross-sequence interactions between Aß and hIAPP may provide a molecular basis for better understanding the potential link between AD and T2D. Herein, we systematically modeled and simulated the cross-sequence aggregation process, molecular interactions, and polymorphic structures of full-length Aß and hIAPP peptides using a combination of coarse-grained (CG) replica-exchange molecular dynamics (REMD) and all-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, with particular focus on the effect of association models between Aß and hIAPP on the structural stability and polymorphic populations of hybrid Aß-hIAPP aggregates. Four distinct association models (double-layer, elongation, tail-tail, and block models) between Aß and hIAPP oligomers were identified, and the associated polymorphic Aß-hIAPP structures were determined as well. Among them, different association models led to different Aß-hIAPP aggregates, with large differences in structural morphologies and populations, interacting interfaces, and underlying association forces. The computational models support the cross-sequence interactions between Aß and hIAPP pentamers, which would lead to the complex hybrid Aß-hIAPP assemblies. This computational work may also provide a different point of view to a better understanding of a potential link between AD and T2D.

Microconcentric ring electrode/injector assembly for sensitive voltammetric analysis in single droplets of ultrasmall volumes.

This paper describes the construction of a microring electrode concentric to an inner injection capillary for voltammetric determination of trace analytes in nanoliter- to picoliter-sized droplets. The gold microring is sandwiched between a pulled fused-silica capillary and borosilicate glass tubing. Compared to polymer-coated microring electrodes, the glass-encapsulated electrode is more robust and does not swell in organic solvents. Consequently, the microring electrode is suitable for voltammetric studies of redox-active species and their accompanying ion transfers between two immiscible solvents. Droplets of variable sizes can be conveniently dispensed from front-loaded sample plugs into an immiscible liquid, greatly simplifying the experimental procedure and facilitating analysis of samples of limited availability. The size of the microring and the volume of the droplet deduced from well-defined voltammograms correlate well with those estimated from their geometric dimensions. The thin-layer cell behavior can be attained with well-defined voltammetric peaks and small capacitive current. Exhaustive electrolysis in single droplets can be accomplished in short times (e.g., ∼85 s in a droplet of 1.42 nL at a microring of 11.4 µm in radius). Anodic stripping voltammetry of Ag deposited onto the microring electrode resulted in a detection limit of 0.13 fmol (14 fg) of Ag(+). The microring electrode/injector assembly can be polished repeatedly and is versatile for various applications (e.g., sample plugs can also be back-loaded via a rotary injection valve and an HPLC pump for flow injection analysis).

Electroanalytical and surface plasmon resonance sensors for detection of breast cancer and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers in cells and body fluids.

Cancer and neurological disorders are two leading causes of human death. Their early diagnoses will either greatly improve the survival rate or facilitate effective treatments or modalities. Detection of biomarkers in body fluids and some tissues (e.g., blood, urine and cerebrospinal fluids) is relatively non-invasive and provides useful chemical and biological information that is complementary to tomographic imaging (e.g., magnetic resonance imaging, positron emission tomography and X-ray computed tomography). Recent years have witnessed the contributions from and potential applications of bioanalytical methods for early detection of major diseases. In this review, we survey some recent developments of electroanalytical (as a representative label-based technique) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) (as a representative label-free technique) biosensors for detection of biomarkers relevant to etiologies of breast cancer and Alzheimer's disease (AD). While breast cancer is representative of cancers of complexity (multiple biomarkers, false positives from tomographic scans, and a need for more effective early diagnostic methods), AD is the most prevalent neurological disorder that is also linked to multiple biomarkers. Both electroanalytical and SPR-based sensors have attractive features of sensitivity, portability, obviation of large sample volumes, and capability of multiplexed detection. Various sensing protocols developed in the past five years are reviewed, demonstrating the feasibility of both techniques for diagnostic purposes. Problems inherent in these two techniques that must be overcome before being clinically viable are also discussed.