Steering CO2 electroreduction pathway toward ethanol via surface-bounded hydroxyl species-induced noncovalent interaction.

Selective electroreduction of carbon dioxide (CO2RR) into ethanol at an industrially relevant current density is highly desired. However, it is challenging because the competing ethylene production pathway is generally more thermodynamically favored. Herein, we achieve a selective and productive ethanol production over a porous CuO catalyst that presents a high ethanol Faradaic efficiency (FE) of 44.1 ± 1.0% and an ethanol-to-ethylene ratio of 1.2 at a large ethanol partial current density of 501.0 ± 15.0 mA cm-2, in addition to an extraordinary FE of 90.6 ± 3.4% for multicarbon products. Intriguingly, we found a volcano-shaped relationship between ethanol selectivity and nanocavity size of porous CuO catalyst in the range of 0 to 20 nm. Mechanistic studies indicate that the increased coverage of surface-bounded hydroxyl species (*OH) associated with the nanocavity size-dependent confinement effect contributes to the remarkable ethanol selectivity, which preferentially favors the *CHCOH hydrogenation to *CHCHOH (ethanol pathway) via yielding the noncovalent interaction. Our findings provide insights in favoring the ethanol formation pathway, which paves the path toward rational design of ethanol-oriented catalysts.

In Situ Infrared Spectroscopic Evidence of Enhanced Electrochemical CO2 Reduction and C-C Coupling on Oxide-Derived Copper.

The reaction mechanism of CO2 electroreduction on oxide-derived copper has not yet been unraveled even though high C2+ Faradaic efficiencies are commonly observed on these surfaces. In this study, we aim to explore the effects of copper anodization on the adsorption of various CO2RR intermediates using in situ surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS) on metallic and mildly anodized copper thin films. The in situ SEIRAS results show that the preoxidation process can significantly improve the overall CO2 reduction activity by (1) enhancing CO2 activation, (2) increasing CO uptake, and (3) promoting C-C coupling. First, the strong *COO- redshift indicates that the preoxidation process significantly enhances the first elementary step of CO2 adsorption and activation. The rapid uptake of adsorbed *COatop also illustrates how a high *CO coverage can be achieved in oxide-derived copper electrocatalysts. Finally, for the first time, we observed the formation of the *COCHO dimer on the anodized copper thin film. Using DFT calculations, we show how the presence of subsurface oxygen within the Cu lattice can improve the thermodynamics of C2 product formation via the coupling of adsorbed *CO and *CHO intermediates. This study advances our understanding of the role of surface and subsurface conditions in improving the catalytic reaction kinetics and product selectivity of CO2 reduction.

The Role of Phase Mixing Degree in Promoting C-C Coupling in Electrochemical CO2 Reduction Reaction on Cu-based Catalysts.

Cu-based catalysts have been identified as the most promising candidates for generation of C2+ products in electrochemical CO2 reduction reaction. Defect engineering in catalysts is a widely employed strategy for promoting C-C coupling on Cu. However, comprehensive understanding of defect structure-to-activity relationship has not been obtained. In this study, controllable defects generation is achieved, which leads to a series of Cu-based catalysts with various phase mixing degrees. It is observed that the Faradaic efficiency toward C2+ products increases with the phase mixing degree, reaching 81 % at maximum. In situ infrared absorption spectroscopy reveals that the catalysts with higher phase mixing degree tend to form *CO more easily and possess higher retention of *CO under high overpotential window, thereby promoting C-C coupling. This work sheds new light on the relationship between defects and C-C coupling, and the rational developed of more advanced Cu-base catalysts.

MXene-Regulated Metal-Oxide Interfaces with Modified Intermediate Configurations Realizing Nearly 100% CO2 Electrocatalytic Conversion.

Electrocatalytic CO2 reduction via renewable electricity provides a sustainable way to produce valued chemicals, while it suffers from low activity and selectivity. Herein, we constructed a novel catalyst with unique Ti3 C2 Tx MXene-regulated Ag-ZnO interfaces, undercoordinated surface sites, as well as mesoporous nanostructures. The designed Ag-ZnO/Ti3 C2 Tx catalyst achieves an outstanding CO2 conversion performance of a nearly 100% CO Faraday efficiency with high partial current density of 22.59 mA cm-2 at -0.87 V versus reversible hydrogen electrode. The electronic donation of Ag and up-shifted d-band center relative to Fermi level within MXene-regulated Ag-ZnO interfaces contributes the high selectivity of CO. The CO2 conversion is highly correlated with the dominated linear-bonded CO intermediate confirmed by in situ infrared spectroscopy. This work enlightens the rational design of unique metal-oxide interfaces with the regulation of MXene for high-performance electrocatalysis beyond CO2 reduction.

Sustainable and High-Rate Electrosynthesis of Nitrogen Fertilizer.

The conventional industrial production of nitrogen-containing fertilizers, such as urea and ammonia, relies heavily on energy-intensive processes, accounting for approximately 3 % of global annual CO2 emissions. Herein, we report a sustainable electrocatalytic approach that realizes direct and selective synthesis of urea and ammonia from co-reduction of CO2 and nitrates under ambient conditions. With the assistance of a copper (Cu)-based salphen organic catalyst, outstanding urea (3.64 mg h-1 mgcat -1 ) and ammonia (9.73 mg h-1 mgcat -1 ) yield rates are achieved, in addition to a remarkable Faradaic efficiency of 57.9±3 % for the former. This work proposes an appealing sustainable route to converting greenhouse gas and waste nitrates by renewable energies into value-added fertilizers.

Slowly Removing Surface Ligand by Aging Enhances the Stability of Pd Nanosheets toward Electron Beam Irradiation and Electrocatalysis.

Surface ligands play an important role in shape-controlled growth and stabilization of colloidal nanocrystals. Their quick removal tends to cause structural deformation and/or aggregation to the nanocrystals. Herein, we demonstrate that the surface ligand based on poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) can be slowly removed from Pd nanosheets (NSs, 0.93±0.17 nm in thickness) by simply aging the colloidal suspension. The aged Pd NSs show well-preserved morphology, together with significantly enhanced stability toward both e-beam irradiation and electrocatalysis (e.g., ethanol oxidation). It is revealed that the slow desorption of PVP during aging forces the re-exposed Pd atoms to reorganize, facilitating the surface to transform from being nearly perfect to defect-rich. The resultant Pd NSs with abundant defects no longer rely on surface ligand to stabilize the atomic arrangement and thus show excellent structural and electrochemical stability. This work provides a facile and effective method to maintain the integrity of colloidal nanocrystals by slowly removing the surface ligand.

Solution-Phase Synthesis of PdH0.706 Nanocubes with Enhanced Stability and Activity toward Formic Acid Oxidation.

Palladium is one of the few metals capable of forming hydrides, with the catalytic properties being dependent on the elemental composition and spatial distribution of H atoms in the lattice. Herein, we report a facile method for the complete transformation of Pd nanocubes into a stable phase made of PdH0.706 by treating them with aqueous hydrazine at a concentration as low as 9.2 mM. Using formic acid oxidation (FAO) as a model reaction, we systematically investigated the structure-catalytic property relationship of the resultant nanocubes with different degrees of hydride formation. The current density at 0.4 V was enhanced by four times when the nanocubes were completely converted from Pd to PdH0.706. On the basis of a set of slab models with PdH(100) overlayers on Pd(100), we conducted density functional theory calculations to demonstrate that the degree of hybrid formation could influence both the activity and selectivity toward FAO by modulating the relative stability of formate (HCOO) and carboxyl (COOH) intermediates. This work provides a viable strategy for augmenting the performance of Pd-based catalysts toward various reactions without altering the loading of this scarce metal.

Fe-N-C Boosts the Stability of Supported Platinum Nanoparticles for Fuel Cells.

The poor durability of Pt-based nanoparticles dispersed on carbon black is the challenge for the application of long-life polymer electrolyte fuel cells. Recent work suggests that Fe- and N-codoped carbon (Fe-N-C) might be a better support than conventional high-surface-area carbon. In this work, we find that the electrochemical surface area retention of Pt/Fe-N-C is much better than that of commercial Pt/C during potential cycling in both acidic and basic media. In situ inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry studies indicate that the Pt dissolution rate of Pt/Fe-N-C is 3 times smaller than that of Pt/C during cycling. Density functional theory calculations further illustrate that the Fe-N-C substrate can provide strong and stable support to the Pt nanoparticles and alleviate the oxide formation by adjusting the electronic structure. The strong metal-substrate interaction, together with a lower metal dissolution rate and highly stable support, may be the reason for the significantly enhanced stability of Pt/Fe-N-C. This finding highlights the importance of carbon support selection to achieve a more durable Pt-based electrocatalyst for fuel cells.

Preparation of Au@Pd Core-Shell Nanorods with fcc-2H-fcc Heterophase for Highly Efficient Electrocatalytic Alcohol Oxidation.

Controlled construction of bimetallic nanostructures with a well-defined heterophase is of great significance for developing highly efficient nanocatalysts and investigating the structure-dependent catalytic performance. Here, a wet-chemical synthesis method is used to prepare Au@Pd core-shell nanorods with a unique fcc-2H-fcc heterophase (fcc: face-centered cubic; 2H: hexagonal close-packed with a stacking sequence of "AB"). The obtained fcc-2H-fcc heterophase Au@Pd core-shell nanorods exhibit superior electrocatalytic ethanol oxidation performance with a mass activity as high as 6.82 A mgPd-1, which is 2.44, 6.96, and 6.43 times those of 2H-Pd nanoparticles, fcc-Pd nanoparticles, and commercial Pd/C, respectively. The operando infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy reveals a C2 pathway with fast reaction kinetics for the ethanol oxidation on the prepared heterophase Au@Pd nanorods. Our experimental results together with density functional theory calculations indicate that the enhanced performance of heterophase Au@Pd nanorods can be attributed to the unconventional 2H phase, the 2H/fcc phase boundary, and the lattice expansion of the Pd shell. Moreover, the heterophase Au@Pd nanorods can also serve as an efficient catalyst for the electrochemical oxidation of methanol, ethylene glycol, and glycerol. Our work in the area of phase engineering of nanomaterials (PENs) opens the way for developing high-performance electrocatalysts toward future practical applications.

Advanced Electrocatalysts with Single-Metal-Atom Active Sites.

Electrocatalysts with single metal atoms as active sites have received increasing attention owing to their high atomic utilization efficiency and exotic catalytic activity and selectivity. This review aims to provide a comprehensive summary on the recent development of such single-atom electrocatalysts (SAECs) for various energy-conversion reactions. The discussion starts with an introduction of the different types of SAECs, followed by an overview of the synthetic methodologies to control the atomic dispersion of metal sites and atomically resolved characterization using state-of-the-art microscopic and spectroscopic techniques. In recognition of the extensive applications of SAECs, the electrocatalytic studies are dissected in terms of various important electrochemical reactions, including hydrogen evolution reaction (HER), oxygen evolution reaction (OER), oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), carbon dioxide reduction reaction (CO2RR), and nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR). Examples of SAECs are deliberated in each case in terms of their catalytic performance, structure-property relationships, and catalytic enhancement mechanisms. A perspective is provided at the end of each section about remaining challenges and opportunities for the development of SAECs for the targeted reaction.

Highly Dispersive Cerium Atoms on Carbon Nanowires as Oxygen Reduction Reaction Electrocatalysts for Zn-Air Batteries.

Highly efficient noble-metal-free electrocatalysts for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) are essential to reduce the costs of fuel cells and metal-air batteries. Herein, a single-atom Ce-N-C catalyst, constructed of atomically dispersed Ce anchored on N-doped porous carbon nanowires, is proposed to boost the ORR. This catalyst has a high Ce content of 8.55 wt % and a high activity with ORR half-wave potentials of 0.88 V in alkaline media and 0.75 V in acidic electrolytes, which are comparable to widely studied Fe-N-C catalysts. A Zn-air battery based on this material shows excellent performance and durability. Density functional theory calculations reveal that atomically dispersed Ce with adsorbed hydroxyl species (OH) can significantly reduce the energy barrier of the rate-determining step resulting in an improved ORR activity.

Solid-State Synthesis of Highly Dispersed Nitrogen-Coordinated Single Iron Atom Electrocatalysts for Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells.

Fe-N-C with atomically dispersed Fe single atoms is the most promising candidate to replace platinum for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in fuel cells. However, the conventional synthesis procedures require quantities solvents and metal precursors, sluggish adsorption process, and tedious washing, resulting in limited metal doping and uneconomical for large-scale production. For the first time, Fe2O3 is adopted as the Fe precursor to derive abundant single Fe atoms dispersed on carbon surfaces. The Fe-N-C catalyst synthesized by this simple method shows an excellent ORR activity with half-wave potentials of 0.82 and 0.90 V in acidic and alkaline solutions, respectively. A single fuel cell with an optimized Fe-N-C cathode shows a high peak power density of 0.84 W cm-2. The solid-state transformation synthesis method developed in this study may shed light on mass production of single-atom-based catalysts.

Kinetically Controlled Synthesis of Pd-Cu Janus Nanocrystals with Enriched Surface Structures and Enhanced Catalytic Activities toward CO2 Reduction.

Bimetallic nanocrystals often outperform their monometallic counterparts in catalysis as a result of the electronic coupling and geometric effect arising from two different metals. Here we report a facile synthesis of Pd-Cu Janus nanocrystals with controlled shapes through site-selected growth by reducing the Cu(II) precursor with glucose in the presence of hexadecylamine and Pd icosahedral seeds. Specifically, at a slow reduction rate, the Cu atoms nucleate and grow from one vertex of the icosahedral seed to form a penta-twinned Janus nanocrystal in the shape of a pentagonal bipyramid or decahedron. At a fast reduction rate, in contrast, the Cu atoms can directly nucleate from or diffuse to the edge of the icosahedral seed for the generation of a singly twinned Janus nanocrystal in the shape of a truncated bitetrahedron. The segregation of two elements and the presence of twin boundaries on the surface make the Pd-Cu Janus nanocrystals effective catalysts for the electrochemical reduction of CO2. An onset potential as low as -0.7 VRHE (RHE: reversible hydrogen electrode) was achieved for C2+ products in 0.5 M KHCO3 solution, together with a faradaic efficiency approaching 51.0% at -1.0 VRHE. Density functional theory and Pourbaix phase diagram studies demonstrated that the high CO coverage on the Pd sites (either metallic or hydride form) during electrocatalysis enabled the spillover of CO to the Cu sites toward subsequent C-C coupling, promoting the formation of C2+ species. This work offers insights for the rational fabrication of bimetallic nanocrystals featuring desired compositions, shapes, and twin structures for catalytic applications.

Maximizing the Catalytic Performance of Pd@Aux Pd1-x Nanocubes in H2 O2 Production by Reducing Shell Thickness to Increase Compositional Stability.

We report a simple route based upon seed-mediated growth to the synthesis of Pd@Aux Pd1-x (0.8≤x≤1) core-shell nanocubes. Benefiting from the well-defined {100} facets and an optimal Au/Pd ratio for the surface, the nanocubes bearing a shell made of Au0.95 Pd0.05 work as an efficient electrocatalyst toward H2 O2 production, with high selectivity of 93-100 % in the low-overpotential region of 0.4-0.7 V. When the Au0.95 Pd0.05 alloy is confined to a shell of only three atomic layers in thickness, the electrocatalyst is able to maintain its surface structure and elemental composition, endowing continuous and stable production of H2 O2 during oxygen reduction at a high rate of 1.62 mol g(Pd+Au) -1  h-1 . This work demonstrates a versatile route to the rational development of active and durable electrocatalysts based upon alloy nanocrystals.

Controlling the Surface Oxidation of Cu Nanowires Improves Their Catalytic Selectivity and Stability toward C2+ Products in CO2 Reduction.

Copper nanostructures are promising catalysts for the electrochemical reduction of CO2 because of their unique ability to produce a large proportion of multi-carbon products. Despite great progress, the selectivity and stability of such catalysts still need to be substantially improved. Here, we demonstrate that controlling the surface oxidation of Cu nanowires (CuNWs) can greatly improve their C2+ selectivity and stability. Specifically, we achieve a faradaic efficiency as high as 57.7 and 52.0 % for ethylene when the CuNWs are oxidized by the O2 from air and aqueous H2 O2 , respectively, and both of them show hydrogen selectivity below 12 %. The high yields of C2+ products can be mainly attributed to the increase in surface roughness and the generation of defects and cavities during the electrochemical reduction of the oxide layer. Our results also indicate that the formation of a relatively thick, smooth oxide sheath can improve the catalytic stability by mitigating the fragmentation issue.

pH-Dependent Hydrogen and Water Binding Energies on Platinum Surfaces as Directly Probed through Surface-Enhanced Infrared Absorption Spectroscopy.

The origins of the pH-dependent kinetics of hydrogen evolution and oxidation reactions on Pt surfaces are unsolved dilemmas that have lasted for over half a century. In this study, surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy is applied to directly monitor the vibrational behaviors of adsorbed hydrogen atoms and interfacial water molecules on Pt surfaces in a wide pH window from 1.1 to 12.9. For the first time, we successfully measure the pH-dependent changes of hydrogen and water binding strength according to their vibrational wavenumbers, which are both monotonously weakened as the solution pH increases. Their changes are the net results of altered electrochemical interface environments and are important contributions to the pH-dependent hydrogen reaction kinetics. Our results add significant new insights into the role of interfacial environments on electrocatalysis.

A Spectroscopic Study of Electrochemical Nitrogen and Nitrate Reduction on Rhodium Surfaces.

Rh is a promising electrocatalyst for the nitrogen reduction reaction (NRR) given its suitable nitrogen-adsorption energy and low overpotential. However, the NRR pathway on Rh surfaces remains unknown. In this study, we employ surface-enhanced infrared-absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS) and differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS) to study the reaction mechanism of NRR on Rh. N2 Hx (0≤x≤2) is detected with a N=N stretching mode at ≈2020 cm-1 by SEIRAS and a signal at m/z=29 by DEMS. A new two-step reaction pathway on Rh surfaces is proposed that involves an electrochemical process with a two-electron transfer to form N2 H2 and its subsequent decomposition in the electrolyte producing NH3 . Our results also indicate that nitrate reduction and the NRR share the same reaction intermediate N2 Hx .

A Spectroscopic Study on the Nitrogen Electrochemical Reduction Reaction on Gold and Platinum Surfaces.

The electrochemical reduction of nitrogen to ammonia on Au-based catalysts showed a reasonably high Coulombic efficiency. The pathway of this promising reaction, however, is not clear partially due to the lack of information on reaction intermediates. Herein, surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS) was employed to study the reaction mechanisms of nitrogen reduction on an Au thin film for the first time. During the nitrogen reduction, the N2Hy species was detected with bands at 1453 (H-N-H bending), 1298 (-NH2 wagging), and 1109 cm-1 (N-N stretching) at potentials below 0 V against reversible hydrogen electrode. This result indicates that the nitrogen reduction reaction on Au surfaces follows an associative mechanism, and the N≡N bond in N2 tends to break simultaneously with the hydrogen addition. By comparison, no absorption band associated with N was observed on Pt surfaces under the same reaction condition. This result is consistent with the low efficiency of nitrogen reduction on Pt due to the much faster kinetics of hydrogen evolution reaction.

Direct Observation on Reaction Intermediates and the Role of Bicarbonate Anions in CO2 Electrochemical Reduction Reaction on Cu Surfaces.

Cu is the only monometallic catalyst that produces a large amount of hydrocarbon fuels during the CO2 electrochemical reduction reaction (CO2RR). However, the CO2RR mechanism and the impact of electrolyte are unclear. In this communication, two important issues regarding the CO2RR on Cu surfaces are studied: (1) the direct observation on reaction intermediates and (2) the role of the electrolyte (KHCO3) in the reaction. Surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy allows direct observation of several reaction intermediates that have never been detected before, except for the commonly detected CO. Another important finding is that CO2 molecules are mediated to the Cu surface via their equilibrium with bicarbonate anions instead of direct adsorption from the solution. These results shed light on the full understanding of the CO2RR on Cu surfaces and developing more advanced catalysts.

Impacts of anions on the oxygen reduction reaction kinetics on platinum and palladium surfaces in alkaline solutions.

The fundamental understanding of the impacts induced by anions on oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in alkaline media is of great importance in the design of more advanced catalysts for alkaline fuel cells (AFC). In this study, the specific adsorption of F-, Cl-, ClO4-, CO32-, SO42-, and citrate anions on Pt/C and Pd/C catalysts, and their impacts on the ORR kinetics in alkaline solutions were systematically studied. It was found that F-, Cl- and ClO4- did not specifically adsorb on Pt or Pd surfaces and had no poisoning effect on ORR. CO32- and SO42- had significant effects on Pt/C and lowered the activity even at a very low concentration. On the other hand, their impacts on Pd/C were negligible. Self-dissociation of citrate anions was found to occur on both Pt/C and Pd/C in the H adsorption/desorption and double layer regions. For the first time, surface enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy (SEIRAS) with the attenuated total reflection (ATR) technique was used to investigate the self-dissociation of citrate on Pt and Pd thin film electrodes. The breaking of carboxylic groups and the carbon backbone was proposed as a possible dissociation pathway for citrate. The adsorbed species have a negligible effect on ORR activity on Pt/C as they are removed by oxidation before 0.75 V. In contrast, their oxidation on Pd/C surfaces is not completed until 0.91 V, which causes a lower ORR activity observed in rotating disk electrode measurements. The findings in this paper emphasize the importance of specific adsorption of anions and double-layer interfacial effects on the ORR activity measurement in alkaline solutions.