Mean platelet volume levels in children with sleep-disordered breathing: a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) correlated with respiratory conditions of snoring and hypopnea. Mean platelet volume (MPV) was an inflammatory marker, related to increased inflammatory condition of pediatric patients. Increase of MPV level may cause failure to thrive or increased upper airway infection rate. The aim of this study was to perform systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate the difference on MPV values for pediatric SDB, and compare the change on MPV after surgery in patients with pediatric SDB. METHODS: A systemic review of the studies from PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane Library databases was conducted in March 2020, supported by reviewing of published articles for studies comparing MPV in pediatric SDB. Meta-analysis was used to compare the change of MPV in pediatric SDB, and sub-group analysis was also used to compare the MPV decrease after surgeries of adenoidectomy or adenotonsillectomy. RESULTS: There were seven studies included in the review. Six of them including 963 subjects showed that a significant increase of MPV was noted in pediatric SDB compared to those in pediatric non-SDB (P < 0.05). Total standardized mean difference (SMD) in MPV between pediatric SDB and non-SDB was 0.51 (95% CI =0.30-0.72, P < 0.05). A significant decrease of MPV was found in pediatric SDB patients who underwent surgery (total SMD = - 0.36; 95% CI = - 0.70- -0.02, P < 0.05). Decreases of MPV after adenoidectomy and adenotonsillectomy were observed, but only the effect of adenotonsillectomy had a statistical significance (total SMD = - 0.72; 95% CI = - 1.18 - -0.26, P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: The MPV was significantly higher in patients with pediatric SDB, indicating the presence of increased platelet activity in pediatric SDB patients. The level of MPV could be reduced by the two surgeries, especially adenotonsillectomy.

Effect of adenotonsillectomy on central sleep apnea: A scoping review.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of adenotonsillectomy (A&T) on reducing central sleep apnea (CSA) in children and adolescents with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). METHODS: A review of the PubMed database was conducted. Two researchers independently reviewed the articles from the literature search and selected papers for further review if they met inclusion criteria. Included studies were prospective studies and case series whose patients were children 18 years or younger undergoing adenotonsillectomy for obstructive sleep apnea with reported pre and postoperative central apnea indexes (CAI). RESULTS: Of the 107 articles initially identified, 18 underwent full length review, and ultimately 15 for final review. All studies reported marked improvement of central sleep apnea indexes after adenotonsillectomy. Two studies found resolution of CSA in 66.7 % and 73.7 % of patients respectively. The remaining four studies found significant reductions in CAI in 43.9 %-93 % of patients. The degree of reduction varied from 40.9 % to 80 %. DISCUSSION: Adenotonsillectomy improves and at times resolves CSA in pediatric patients with concomitant OSA.

Identifying barriers to obstructive sleep-disordered breathing care: Parental perspectives.

OBJECTIVE: Despite established clinical practice guidelines for pediatric obstructive sleep-disordered breathing (SDB), disparities persist for this common condition. Few studies have investigated parental experiences about challenges faced in obtaining SDB evaluation and tonsillectomy for their children. To better understand parent-perceived barriers to treatment of childhood SDB, we administered a survey to assess parental knowledge of this condition. MATERIALS & METHODS: A cross-sectional survey was designed to be completed by parents of children diagnosed with SDB. Two validated surveys were administered: 1) Barriers to Care Questionnaire and 2) Obstructive Sleep-Disordered Breathing and Adenotonsillectomy Knowledge Scale for Parents. Logistic regression modeling was performed to assess for predictors of parental barriers to SDB care and knowledge. RESULTS: Eighty parents completed the survey. Mean patient age was 7.4 ± 4.6 years, and 48 (60%) patients were male. The survey response rate was 51%. Patient racial/ethnic categories included 48 (60.0%) non-Hispanic White, 18 (22.5%) non-Hispanic Black, and 14 (17.5%) Other. Parents reported challenges in the 'Pragmatic' domain, including appointment availability and cost of healthcare, as the most frequently described barrier to care. Adjusting for age, sex, race, and education, parents in the middle-income bracket ($26,500 - $79,500) had higher odds of reporting greater barriers to care than parents in the highest (>$79,500) income tier (OR 5.536, 95% CI 1.312-23.359, P = 0.020) and lowest income tier (<$26,500) (OR 3.920, 95% CI 1.096-14.020). Parents whose children had tonsillectomy (n = 40) answered only a mean 55.7% ± 13.3% of questions correctly on the knowledge scale. CONCLUSION: Pragmatic challenges were the most encountered barrier that parents reported in accessing SDB care. Families in the middle-income tier experienced the greatest barriers to SDB care compared to lower and higher income families. In general, parental knowledge of SDB and tonsillectomy was relatively low. These findings represent potential areas of improvement to target interventions to promote equitable care for SDB.

Deep learning-based algorithm accurately classifies sleep stages in preadolescent children with sleep-disordered breathing symptoms and age-matched controls.

Introduction: Visual sleep scoring has several shortcomings, including inter-scorer inconsistency, which may adversely affect diagnostic decision-making. Although automatic sleep staging in adults has been extensively studied, it is uncertain whether such sophisticated algorithms generalize well to different pediatric age groups due to distinctive EEG characteristics. The preadolescent age group (10-13-year-olds) is relatively understudied, and thus, we aimed to develop an automatic deep learning-based sleep stage classifier specifically targeting this cohort. Methods: A dataset (n = 115) containing polysomnographic recordings of Icelandic preadolescent children with sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) symptoms, and age and sex-matched controls was utilized. We developed a combined convolutional and long short-term memory neural network architecture relying on electroencephalography (F4-M1), electrooculography (E1-M2), and chin electromyography signals. Performance relative to human scoring was further evaluated by analyzing intra- and inter-rater agreements in a subset (n = 10) of data with repeat scoring from two manual scorers. Results: The deep learning-based model achieved an overall cross-validated accuracy of 84.1% (Cohen's kappa κ = 0.78). There was no meaningful performance difference between SDB-symptomatic (n = 53) and control subgroups (n = 52) [83.9% (κ = 0.78) vs. 84.2% (κ = 0.78)]. The inter-rater reliability between manual scorers was 84.6% (κ = 0.78), and the automatic method reached similar agreements with scorers, 83.4% (κ = 0.76) and 82.7% (κ = 0.75). Conclusion: The developed algorithm achieved high classification accuracy and substantial agreements with two manual scorers; the performance metrics compared favorably with typical inter-rater reliability between manual scorers and performance reported in previous studies. These suggest that our algorithm may facilitate less labor-intensive and reliable automatic sleep scoring in preadolescent children.

Drug-Induced sleep endoscopy in children: NAVOTEL scoring system development.

OBJECTIVES: Pediatric drug-induced sleep endoscopy (DISE) lacks a universal and easy-to-use scoring system. The velum, oropharynx, tongue, epiglottis (VOTE) scoring system is widely used but needs to be completed in pediatrics. The main objective of this study was to investigate the distribution of obstructive sites in DISE and to propose an appropriate pediatric scoring system. The secondary objective was to evaluate the changes in surgical management induced by the proposed scoring system. METHODS: A single-center prospective 5-year study was conducted from March 2016 to December 2021, including 99 children with a mean age of 7.2 years (±3.7), with pathological preoperative sleep recordings and undergoing DISE. The distribution of all upper airway obstructive sites was studied. RESULTS: Adenoids (A) were the most frequent obstructive site (63% of patients), and the nasal cavities (N) and the larynx (L) were other frequent obstructive sites. These sites are not explored by the VOTE scoring system, leading to the creation of the nose, adenoids, velum, oropharynx, tongue, epiglottis, larynx (NAVOTEL) scoring system. NAVOTEL was significantly correlated with the severity of obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome (OSAS) (ρ = 0.2; p = 0.04) and highlighted obstructive sites in 6/9 patients with VOTE = 0. Of these patients, 4 had a complete obstructive site, and 3 had a multisite obstruction. VOTE indicated 8 additional surgical actions; NAVOTEL indicated 50 other actions compared to clinical examination. The NAVOTEL scoring system was exhaustive regarding surgical indications for OSAS. CONCLUSIONS: The NAVOTEL scoring system is exhaustive in pediatric DISE and correlated to OSAS severity. It should be preferred in pediatric DISE.

Sleep Disordered Breathing and Recurrent Tonsillitis Are Associated With Polymicrobial Bacterial Biofilm Infections Suggesting a Role for Anti-Biofilm Therapies.

Background: The underlying pathogenesis of pediatric obstructive sleep disordered breathing (SDB) and recurrent tonsillitis (RT) are poorly understood but need to be elucidated to develop less invasive treatment and prevention strategies. Methods: Children aged between 1- and 16-years undergoing adenoidectomy, tonsillectomy or adenotonsillectomy for SDB (n=40), RT alone (n=18), or both SDB and RT (SDB+RT) (n=17) were recruited with age-matched healthy controls (n=33). Total bacterial load and species-specific densities of nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi), Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Moraxella catarrhalis were measured by qPCR in nasopharyngeal swabs, oropharyngeal swabs, adenoid and tonsillar tissue from children with SDB, SDB+RT and RT, and in naso- and oro- pharyngeal swabs from healthy children. A subset of tonsil biopsies were examined for biofilms using 16S rRNA FISH (n=3/group). Results: The 5 bacterial species were detected in naso- and oro- pharyngeal samples from all children. These species were frequently detected in adenotonsillar tissue (except S. aureus, which was absent in adenoids) from children with SDB, SDB+RT and RT. NTHi and S. aureus were observed in tonsils from 66.7-88.2% and 33.3-58.8% of children respectively. Similar total and species-specific bacterial densities were observed in adenotonsillar tissue from children with SDB, SDB+RT or RT. Nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal swabs were more likely to have multiple bacterial species co-detected than adenotonsillar tissue where one or two targeted species predominated. Polymicrobial biofilms and intracellular bacteria were observed in tonsils from children with adenotonsillar disease. Conclusions: Antimicrobials, particularly anti-biofilm therapies, may be a strategy for managing children with SDB.

Adherence to Sleep Therapies in Children and Adolescents.

Improved recognition of obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in children has led many to identify effective strategies to treat pediatric OSA. Positive airway pressure (PAP) therapy in children, which has been shown to resolve OSA, is highly contingent on adequate adherence. In pediatrics, adherence is complex, related largely to the influence of age. Consequently, reported adherence rates in children are often lower than adults. Notwithstanding, studies have identified significant risk factors, some modifiable, and several intervention strategies that may improve pediatric adherence. Close follow-up, including use of cloud-based monitoring, of children using PAP therapy may optimize adherence further.

Tracheal sounds for the scoring of sleep respiratory events in children.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: Oronasal thermistor and nasal cannula are recommended for the scoring of respiratory events (RE) but these sensors are poorly tolerated in children. The aim of the study was to evaluate tracheal sounds (TS) and suprasternal pressure (SSP) for the scoring of RE during sleep in children. METHODS: We compared the detection and characterization of RE by AASM-recommended sensors ("AASM" scoring), with the detection and characterization of RE by the combination of TS and SSP with respiratory inductance plethysmography-sum (TS-RIP scoring), and TS and SSP only (TS scoring). RESULTS: The recordings of 17 patients were analyzed. The TS, SSP, and RIP flow signals were present during 95%, 95%, and 99% of the validated recording time, respectively, as compared to 79% and 86% for nasal cannula and oronasal thermistor. A total of 1,456 RE were scored with the "AASM" scoring, 1,335 with the TS-RIP scoring, and 1,311 with the TS scoring. Sensitivity for apnea and hypopnea detection was 88% and 84% for the TS-RIP scoring, and 86% and 77% for the TS scoring. For apnea characterization, the TS-RIP scoring sensitivities and specificities were 97% and 100%, 76% and 98%, and 95% and 97%, for obstructive, mixed, and central apnea, respectively. For the TS scoring, they were 95% and 100%, 95% and 97%, and 91% and 97%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: TS and SSP + RIP-sum has a good sensitivity and specificity for the detection and characterization of apnea and hypopnea in children. TS and SSP alone have good sensitivity and specificity for apnea detection and characterization but lower sensitivity for hypopnea detection.

Neurocognitive and behavioral abnormalities in Indian children with sleep-disordered breathing before and after adenotonsillectomy.

OBJECTIVES: Children with untreated sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) have impaired intellectual ability and behavioral effects. Timely treatment of SDB by adenotonsillectomy (AT) may prevent this morbidity. This study was designed to assess the prevalence of neurocognitive and behavioral dysfunction in Indian children with SDB and to evaluate the impact of AT. METHODS: Children recruited underwent diagnostic polysomnography (PSG), a detailed neurocognitive and behavioral assessment using a battery of validated instruments - the Malin's Intelligence Scale (MIS) for Indian children, Modified Wisconsin's Card Sorting Test, Parent Conners' Scale, and the Childhood Behavior Checklist (6-18). These children then underwent AT and subsequent reassessment at 3 and 6 months. RESULTS: Neurocognitive impairment was common among the 33 enrolled children (mean age 9 [±2.97] years; 78.8% males). There was a significant correlation between the lowest O2saturation and the "categories completed" (r = -0.379; P = 0.029); and the lowest O2saturation and the "failure to maintain sets" (r = 0.386; P = 0.026) of the Modified Wisconsin's Card Sorting Test. Postsurgery, although apnea-hypopnea index (AHI) significantly decreased after surgery, 15 children still had SDB. Mean scores of most of the tested neurocognitive and behavioral domains showed improvement, although residual deficits were prevalent even after 6 months. Patients with a baseline AHI >5/h and those who had complete resolution of SDB (postoperative AHI <1/h) showed improvement in more subscales than patients with baseline AHI < 5/h and patients with incomplete resolution of SDB. CONCLUSION: The decreased neurocognitive performance related to SDB may be a result of hypoxemia, rather than the frequency of SDB events. Despite AT, residual disease is common and such patients may require further treatment.

Evolution of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome, nasal flow and systolic pressure of the pulmonary artery in children with indication for adenoidectomy and/or tonsillectomy over 18 months.

BACKGROUND: Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in childhood has aroused great interest due to its cardiovascular repercussions and its adverse effects on the quality of life of the affected individuals. However, fundamental aspects of the syndrome remain unknown. OBJECTIVE: Herein we prospectively assessed pulmonary artery systolic pressure (PASP) and nasal flow in children with obstructive oral breathing with an indication for adenoidectomy and/or tonsillectomy and their relationship to the obstructive apnea and hypopnea index (OAHI). METHODS: Twenty-one children were evaluated at the time of the surgical indication (T0) and 18 months later (T1). Polysomnography, and rhinomanometry data were collected when we evaluated PASP. RESULTS: Among the 21 children, 13 (61.9%) presented an altered OAHI at T0. Fourteen children (66.7%) underwent surgery. Of these, nine (64.3%) had an altered OAHI at T0 and seven (50.0%) at T1. Of the seven non-operated children, four (57.1%) had an altered OAHI at T0 and two (33.3%) at T1. Mean nasal flow increased in both groups independently of surgery (p- ≤ 0.001). PASP exhibited a significant reduction between T0 and T1 in the operated group (p ≤ 0.001). OAHI of the operated group did not show a significant decrease over time (p = 0.074). In the non-operated children, the average nasal flow increased (p < 0.001), the PASP values did not reduce (p = 0.99), and the OAHI increased and then decreased over time (p = 0.025). CONCLUSION: PASP decreased significantly and OAHI did not normalize in the operated group. Mean nasal airflow increased in the operated and non-operated groups.

Cost Benefit and Utility Decision Analysis of Turbinoplasty with Adenotonsillectomy for Pediatric Sleep-Disordered Breathing.

OBJECTIVES: Use decision analysis techniques to assess the potential utility gains/losses and costs of adding bilateral inferior turbinoplasty to tonsillectomy/adenoidectomy (T/A) for the treatment of obstructive sleep-disordered breathing (oSDB) in children. Use sensitivity analysis to explore the key variables in the scenario. STUDY DESIGN: Cost-utility decision analysis model. SETTING: Hypothetical cohort. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Computer software (TreeAge Software, Williamstown, Massachusetts) was used to construct a decision analysis model. The model included the possibility of postoperative complications and persistent oSDB after surgery. Baseline clinical and quality-adjusted life year (QALY) parameters were estimated using published data. Cost data were estimated from Centers for Medicare and Medicaid 2018 databases ( www.cms.gov ). Sensitivity analyses were completed to assess for key model parameters. RESULTS: The utility analysis of the baseline model favored the addition of turbinoplasty (0.8890 vs 0.8875 overall utility) assuming turbinate hypertrophy was present. Sensitivity analysis indicated the treatment success increase (%) provided by concurrent turbinoplasty was the key parameter in the model. A treatment success increase of 3% of turbinoplasty was the threshold where concurrent turbinoplasty was favored over T/A alone. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) of $27,333/QALY for the baseline model was favorable to the willingness-to-pay threshold of $50,000 to $100,000/QALY for industrialized nations. CONCLUSIONS: The addition of turbinoplasty for children with turbinate hypertrophy to T/A for the treatment of pediatric oSDB is beneficial from both a utility and cost-benefit analysis standpoint even if the benefits of turbinoplasty are relatively modest.

Cranial base length in pediatric populations with sleep disordered breathing: A systematic review.

The aim of this study was to review the existing literature on the association between cranial base length (CBL) and sleep disordered breathing (SDB) in children. Searches were carried out using Ovid MEDLINE, EMBASE, and Science Citation Index. Modified NIH (National Institute of Health) quality assessment tool was used to assess risk of bias. Grading of recommendations, assessment, development and evaluation (GRADE) was used to summarize the quality of evidence. Six articles met the inclusion criteria. Two studies (n = 57) showed shorter CBL in children with obstructive sleep apnea (OSA). One study (n = 29) showed shorter CBL in children that were habitual snorers. Another study (n = 15) looking at OSA-affected vs. healthy children and one (n = 56) looking at correlation of CBL with OSA severity in children, did not report a significant association/correlation. One study (n = 7) showed a longer CBL in OSA affected boys. All studies had high risks of bias and ranged from low to very low in quality. Although studies with slightly lower risks of bias may indicate shorter CBL in children with SDB, neither an association nor a lack thereof between CBL and pediatric SDB can be supported or refuted due to the low to very low quality of included studies.

Correlation between gonial angle and dynamic tongue collapse in children with snoring/sleep disordered breathing - an exploratory pilot study.

BACKGROUND: Drug induced sleep endoscopy (DISE) is hoped to identify reasons of failure of adenotonsillectomy (AT) in treating pediatric sleep disordered breathing (SDB). Maxillomandibular disproportion has been studied as another association which may explain alternative pathogenesis of SDB. We aimed to explore the relation between the size of the gonial angle and inclination of the epiglottis measured from cone beam CT (CBCT) and tongue base collapse based on DISE in children with SDB. METHOD: A retrospective chart review was conducted at a tertiary pediatric center. Children (6-17 years old) assessed at a multi-disciplinary Upper Airway Clinic, diagnosed with SDB and maxillo-mandibular disproportion (MMD), and who underwent DISE were eligible. Variables obtained from the electronic medical records of the clinic and prospective database included demographics, comorbidities, surgeries performed, investigations, DISE findings and CBCT findings. The gonial angle of subjects with and without tongue base collapse (TBC) on SNP were compared. RESULTS: In total 29 patients (13 male, 8 female) age 6-17 (median= 9) were eligible for the study from January 2009 - July 2016. We included 11 subjects, and 10 comparators. The mean gonial angle of the TBC group was 139.3°± 7.6°, while that of the comparison group was 129.4°±3.5 (mean difference -9.937, 95% CI of -15.454 to - 4.421, P = 0.001, power of test 0.95). Additionally, the mean inclination of the epiglottis had a mild positive correlation (r=0.32, p<0.05) with the gonial angle, in the whole cohort. CONCLUSIONS: This pilot study suggests that TBC may be mediated by a wider gonial angle in children with SDB patients. The posterior tilt of the epiglottis on CBCT may be a surrogate sign of TBC.

The watch-pat in pediatrics sleep disordered breathing: Pilot study on children with negative nocturnal pulse oximetry.

OBJECTIVES: The main purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy of Watch-PAT in Pediatric Sleep Disordered Breathing (PSDB) diagnosis in children with symptoms suggestive of PSDB, in which the nocturnal pulse oximetry was negative according to the Brouilette criteria. METHODS: We enrolled 28 patients aged between 5 and 12 years (mean age: 7.75 ± 1.69), who underwent the registration with Watch-PAT, that utilizes the Peripheral Arterial Tone (PAT), AHI, RDI, body position, snoring, pulse oximetry and actigraphy. RESULTS: Recording Watch-PAT was indicative of PSDB in 10/28 (35.7%) patients; when it was placed the threshold of AHI > 1 the number of positive patients for PSDB increased to 17/28 (60.7%). Exists a positive correlation between pat-RDI (rho = 0.798, p = 0.005) and the snoring > 40% of the time (rho = 0.656, p < 0.001) were correlated with the pat-AHI values. CONCLUSION: The recording Watch-PAT appears to permit the defection of a certain number of SDB that might escape to the clinical evaluation and pulse oximetry only.

Cost-benefit analysis of polysomnography versus Clinical Assessment Score-15 (CAS-15) for treatment of pediatric sleep-disordered breathing.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the cost of medical care using the Clinical Assessment Score-15 (CAS-15) scale versus polysomnography (PSG) for children with sleep-disordered breathing in terms of benefit. STUDY DESIGN: Cost-benefit analysis. SETTING: Hospital-based pediatric otolaryngology practice. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: Ninety-three patients from our original CAS-15 study were included. Four clinical measures were used and payment data were obtained. Cost-benefit analysis was performed for 2 clinical pathways. In pathway 1, all children had PSG; those with positive studies were referred for adenotonsillectomy. In pathway 2, children with CAS-15 ≥ 32 were referred for adenotonsillectomy regardless of PSG. Paired t test compared intrasubject mean total cost (pathway 1 vs pathway 2). Further analyses computed a change score for the clinical measures (follow-up minus baseline); these were divided by estimated treatment cost, producing 4 cost-benefit ratios for each pathway. Paired t tests compared the mean of these ratios between the pathways. RESULTS: Of 65 PSG+ (15 CAS-), 54 underwent surgery; of 28 PSG- (17 CAS-), 7 underwent surgery. Model estimated costs demonstrate a mean cost benefit of $US1172 (SE = $214) for pathway 2 versus pathway 1 (P < .001). CAS-15 is also cost-beneficial versus PSG in 3 of 4 clinical measures (Child Behavior Checklist total problem T score, P = .008, mean OSA-18 survey score, P < .001, apnea hypopnea index, P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: We present evidence that a CAS-15-based treatment decision criterion is superior to PSG in terms of monetary cost and in benefit per unit cost for 3 of 4 clinical measures evaluated.

Obstructive sleep apnea in children: a critical update.

Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) in children is a highly prevalent disorder caused by a conglomeration of complex pathophysiological processes, leading to recurrent upper airway dysfunction during sleep. The clinical relevance of OSA resides in its association with significant morbidities that affect the cardiovascular, neurocognitive, and metabolic systems. The American Academy of Pediatrics recently reiterated its recommendations that children with symptoms and signs suggestive of OSA should be investigated with polysomnography (PSG), and treated accordingly. However, treatment decisions should not only be guided by PSG results, but should also integrate the magnitude of symptoms and the presence or absence of risk factors and signs of OSA morbidity. The first-line therapy in children with adenotonsillar hypertrophy is adenotonsillectomy, although there is increasing evidence that medical therapy, in the form of intranasal steroids or montelukast, may be considered in mild OSA. In this review, we delineate the major concepts regarding the pathophysiology of OSA, its morbidity, diagnosis, and treatment.

Improvement of sleep-disordered breathing in children is associated with a reduction in overnight blood pressure.

OBJECTIVE: Childhood sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) is associated with elevated blood pressure (BP); however, little is known about the long-term outcomes in this population. We aimed to assess long-term changes in overnight BP in children with SDB. METHODS: Forty children with previously diagnosed SDB and 20 nonsnoring control participants underwent repeat overnight polysomnography (PSG) with continuous BP measurement 4years after the original diagnosis. At follow-up, children aged 11-16years were categorized into 2 groups of resolved (absence of snoring and obstructive apnea-hypopnea index [OAHI]⩽1) or unresolved (continued to snore or had an OAHI >1) SDB. RESULTS: There were no group differences in age, sex, or body mass index (BMI) z score. OAHI was lower at follow-up (P<.05) in both the resolved (n=18) and unresolved (n=22) groups. BP was elevated during wake and sleep in both SDB groups compared to the control group at baseline (P<.01 for all), but it decreased by 5-15mmHg at follow-up during sleep for both SDB groups (P<.05 for all). BP during wake was unchanged in the SDB groups at follow-up but increased in the control group (P<.05). At follow-up, BP did not differ between the control group and the SDB groups during wake or sleep. Improved oxygen saturation (SpO2) during sleep was a significant predictor of a reduction in BP. CONCLUSIONS: SDB improved over the 4-year follow-up and both resolved and unresolved groups exhibited a significant reduction in BP during sleep, with levels similar to the control group. Our study highlights the fact that even small improvements can improve the cardiovascular effects of SDB.

Genotype-phenotype interactions in pediatric obstructive sleep apnea.

Pediatric sleep disordered breathing (PSDB) is not only a very frequent condition affecting 2-4% of all children, but is also associated with an increased risk for a variety of manifestations underlying end-organ injury and dysfunction that impose both immediate and potentially long-term morbidities and corresponding inherent elevations in healthcare costs. One of the major problems with the creation of valid algorithms aiming to stratify diagnostic and treatment prioritization lies in our current inability to predict and identify those children who are most at-risk for PSDB-induced adverse consequences. Thus, improved our understanding of the mechanisms governing phenotype variance in PSDB is essential. Here, we examine some of the potential underpinnings of phenotypic variability in PSDB, and further propose a conceptual framework aimed at facilitating the process of advancing knowledge in this frequent disorder.

Pediatric obstructive sleep apnea and the critical role of oral-facial growth: evidences.

AIMS: Review of evidence in support of an oral-facial growth impairment in the development of pediatric sleep apnea in non-obese children. METHOD: Review of experimental data from infant monkeys with experimentally induced nasal resistance. Review of early historical data in the orthodontic literature indicating the abnormal oral-facial development associated with mouth breathing and nasal resistance. Review of the progressive demonstration of sleep-disordered-breathing (SDB) in children who underwent incomplete treatment of OSA with adenotonsillectomy, and demonstration of abnormal oral-facial anatomy that must often be treated in order for the resolution of OSA. Review of data of long-term recurrence of OSA and indication of oral-facial myofunctional dysfunction in association with the recurrence of OSA. RESULTS: Presentation of prospective data on premature infants and SDB-treated children, supporting the concept of oral-facial hypotonia. Presentation of evidence supporting hypotonia as a primary element in the development of oral-facial anatomic abnormalities leading to abnormal breathing during sleep. Continuous interaction between oral-facial muscle tone, maxillary-mandibular growth and development of SDB. Role of myofunctional reeducation with orthodontics and elimination of upper airway soft tissue in the treatment of non-obese SDB children. CONCLUSION: Pediatric OSA in non-obese children is a disorder of oral-facial growth.