Comparison of genotyping methods for Cunninghamella bertholletiae.

BACKGROUND: Invasive fungal infections caused by filamentous fungi of the order Mucorales are serious complications in immunocompromised patients and often associated with fatal outcome. As a member of this order, Cunninghamella bertholletiae is a saprophytic fungus with naturally exhibited high minimum inhibitory concentrations against common antifungal drugs and with the potential for outbreaks in clinical settings. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS: In a proof-of-principle study, we evaluated the performance of microsatellite markers for the discrimination of thirteen C. bertholletiae isolates from various sources in comparison with a repetitive sequence-based PCR (rep-PCR) and random amplification of polymorphic DNA (RAPD). Based on the higher discriminatory power of the microsatellite PCR with five separate primer pairs (Simpson's index of 1 vs 0 [RAPD] and 0 [rep-PCR]), the novel method was applied to eight additional isolates, including four well-characterised isolates from a cluster of infections in a next step. RESULTS: In total, microsatellite PCR identified 21 separate genotypes. A probable epidemiological association of the cluster isolates could be demonstrated by microsatellite genotyping. CONCLUSION: In conclusion, our findings demonstrate the value of microsatellite PCR in genotyping Cunninghamella bertholletiae and its potential for future applications with other species of the order Mucorales.

Microbe-mediate transformation of echinocystic acid by whole cells of filamentous fungus Cunninghamella blakesleana CGMCC 3.910.

Structural modification of echinocystic acid (EA), a pentacyclic triterpenoid with wide spread biological activities was investigated by microbial transformation. Microbe-mediate transformation of EA was carried out by filamentous fungus Cunninghamella blakesleana CGMCC 3.910. Four metabolites 3ß, 7ß, 16α-trihydroxy-olean-12-en-28-oic acid (EA-2); 3ß, 7ß, 16ß,19ß-tetrahydroxy-olean-12-en-28-oic acid (EA-3); 3ß, 7ß, 16α, 21ß-tetrahydroxy-olean-12-en-28-oic acid (EA-4); 3ß, 7ß, 16α-trihydroxy-olean-11, 13(18)-dien-28-oic acid (EA-5) were produced. Structures of transformed products were elucidated by 1D and 2D NMR and HR-MS data. EA-3 and EA-4 were new compounds.

DNA barcoding of clinically relevant Cunninghamella species.

Mucormycosis caused, in part, by representatives of the genus Cunninghamella is a severe infection with high mortality in patients with impaired immunity. Several species have been described in the literature as etiologic agents. A DNA barcoding study using ITS rDNA and tef-1α provided concordance of molecular data with conventional characters. The currently accepted Cunninghamella species were well supported in phylogenetic trees of both markers except for C. septata with ITS that clustered in the C. echinulata clade. Sequence variability was distinctly higher for the ITS than for tef-1α. Intraspecific ITS variability of some of the species exceeded that between some closely related species, but the marker remained applicable for species identification. The most variable species for both markers was C. echinulata. Cunninghamella bertholletiae is the main pathogenic species; infections by C. blakesleeana, C. echinulata, and C. elegans are highly exceptional.

Dissecting the genome sequence of a clinical isolated Cunninghamella bertholletiae Z2 strain with rich cytochrome P450 enzymes (Article).

Mucormycosis is receiving much more attention because of its high morbidity and extremely high mortality rate in immunosuppressed populations. In this study, we isolated a Cunnignhamella bertholletiae Z2 strain from a skin lesion of a 14 year, 9 months old girl with acute lymphoblastic leukemia who die of infection from the Z2 strain. Genome sequencing was performed after isolation and amplification of the Z2 strain to reveal potential virulence factors and pathogenic mechanisms. The results showed that the genome size of the Z2 strain is 30.9 Mb with 9213 genes. Mucoral specific virulence factor genes found are ARF, CalN, and CoTH, while no gliotoxin biosynthesis gene cluster was found, which is a known virulence factor in Aspergillus fumigatus adapted to the environment. The Z2 strain was found to have 69 cytochrome P450 enzymes, which are potential drug resistant targets. Sensitivity testing of Z2 showed it was only inhibited by amphotericin B and posaconazole. Detailed genomic information of the C. bertholletiae Z2 strain may provide useful data for treatment.

Increased virulence of Cunninghamella bertholletiae in experimental pulmonary mucormycosis: correlation with circulating molecular biomarkers, sporangiospore germination and hyphal metabolism.

Members of the order Mucorales are emerging invasive molds that cause infections in immunocompromised patients. However, little is known about the relation between different species of Mucorales and their virulence in invasive pulmonary mucormycosis. Based upon our earlier epidemiological studies, we hypothesized that Cunninghamella bertholletiae would demonstrate increased virulence. Therefore, we studied the relative virulence of C. bertholletiae (CB), Rhizopus oryzae (RO), R. microsporus (RM), and Mucor circinelloides (MC) in experimental invasive pulmonary mucormycosis in persistently neutropenic rabbits in relation to the fungi in vitro sporangiospore germination rate and hyphal metabolic activity. Rabbits infected with CB demonstrated (1) higher lung weights in comparison to RM (P ≤ 0.05), RO and MC (P ≤ 0.001), (2) pulmonary infarcts in comparison to RO and MC (P ≤ 0.001), (3) tissue fungal burden (CFU/g) vs. MC (P ≤ 0.001), and (4) the lowest survival of 0% (0/18), in comparison to 16% (3/18, P ≤ 0.01) of RM, 81% (21/26) of RO, and 83% (15/18) of MC-infected rabbits (P ≤ 0.001). Serum PCR concentration-time-curve showed the greatest amplitude for CB. Virulence correlated directly with sporangiospore germination rate at 4 h among species, i.e., CB (67-85%) > RM (14-56%) > RO (4-30%) > MC (0%), and hyphal metabolic activity, i.e., CB (1.22-1.51) > MC (0.54-0.64) = RM (0.38-0.41) = RO (0.37-0.59). C. bertholletiae was significantly more virulent in experimental invasive pulmonary mucormycosis than R. microsporus, R. oryzae, and M. circinelloides. In vivo virulence correlated with species-dependent differences of in vitro germination rate and hyphal metabolic activity.

Characterization of three Δ9-fatty acid desaturases with distinct substrate specificity from an oleaginous fungus Cunninghamella echinulata.

In oleaginous fungus Cunninghamella echinulata, Δ9-fatty acid desaturase introduces the first double bond into a saturated fatty acid. Three distinct genes, designated as d9dma, d9dmb and d9dmc, all encoding putative Δ9-fatty acid desaturases were isolated from this strain. The predicted proteins showed 79-87 % identity to other fungal Δ9-fatty acid desaturases. They all contain three conserved histidine boxes, C-terminal cytochrome b 5 fusion and four transmembrane domains characteristic of Δ9-desaturase. Each putative Δ9-desaturase gene from C. echinulata was able to complement the ole1 mutation in Saccharomyces cerevisiae L8-14C through heterologous expression. Analysis of the fatty acid composition of the transgenic yeast revealed that the conversion rates of 16:0 and 18:0 by D9DMA were obviously higher than those of D9DMB and D9DMC. In addition, D9DMA, D9DMB and D9DMC all had a substrate preference for 18:0 compared with 16:0. Of interest, D9DMA could saturate 12:0, 14:0, 16:0, 17:0, 18:0 and 20:0, while D9DMB saturated 14:0, 16:0, 17:0, 18:0 and 20:0. We also noticed that the transcriptional level of d9dma in C. echinulata was stimulated by cell growth but not by decline in temperature. In contrast, expression of d9dmb and d9dmc was regulated by neither cell growth nor decline in temperature in this strain.

Cytochrome P450 5208A3 is a promiscuous xenobiotic biotransforming enzyme in Cunninghamella elegans.

Cunninghamella elegans is a long-established microbial model of mammalian drug and xenobiotic metabolism enabled by the actions of cytochrome P450 enzymes that are poorly characterised. In this paper we describe the identification of a new cytochrome P450 (CYP) monooxygenase in the fungus that catalyses the biotransformation of a range of structurally distinct xenobiotic substrates. The fungal enzyme was heterologously expressed in the yeast Pichia pastoris X-33 alone and in combination with previously identified C. elegans CYP reductases (CPRs A, B and C). Enzyme activity was assessed against a panel of drugs (flurbiprofen, diclofenac and ibuprofen), pesticides (transfluthrin, ß-cyfluthrin and λ-cyhalothrin) and a perfluoroalkyl substance (6:2 fluorotelomer alcohol) that were incubated with whole yeast cells expressing CYP5208A3. The biotransformation products were determined by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) revealing the same metabolites that had been previously observed in the fungus. Co-expression of the CPRs improved metabolite production and the degree of improvement depended on the substrate and the CYP/CPR combination. Optimal pyrethroid biotransformation was achieved with CYP/CPR_C, whereas the best combination for non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug hydroxylation was CYP/CPR_A; fluorotelomer alcohol oxidation was only observed with CYP/CPR_B. The change in substrate specificity observed with CYP5208A3 in combination with the different CPRs might help explain how C. elegans can biotransform such a broad spectrum of xenobiotics.

Production of γ-linolenic acid using a novel heterologous expression system in the oleaginous yeast Lipomyces kononenkoae.

A novel expression system was established in the oleaginous yeast, Lipomyces kononenkoae. The expression vector pLK-rhPHG of L. kononenkoae was constructed and using the hygromycin phosphotransferase gene and green fluorescent protein gene as reporter genes. A delta 6-fatty acid desaturase gene (D6DM) from Cunninghamella echinulata MIAN6 was then expressed in this strain. The recombinant strain accumulated about 1.2% γ-linolenic acid in the total fatty acids.

Extraction of short chain chitooligosaccharides from fungal biomass and their use as promoters of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis.

Short chain chitooligosaccharides (COs) are chitin derivative molecules involved in plant-fungus signaling during arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) interactions. In host plants, COs activate a symbiotic signalling pathway that regulates AM-related gene expression. Furthermore, exogenous CO application was shown to promote AM establishment, with a major interest for agricultural applications of AM fungi as biofertilizers. Currently, the main source of commercial COs is from the shrimp processing industry, but purification costs and environmental concerns limit the convenience of this approach. In an attempt to find a low cost and low impact alternative, this work aimed to isolate, characterize and test the bioactivity of COs from selected strains of phylogenetically distant filamentous fungi: Pleurotus ostreatus, Cunninghamella bertholletiae and Trichoderma viride. Our optimized protocol successfully isolated short chain COs from lyophilized fungal biomass. Fungal COs were more acetylated and displayed a higher biological activity compared to shrimp-derived COs, a feature that-alongside low production costs-opens promising perspectives for the large scale use of COs in agriculture.

Production of gamma-linolenic acid in Pichia pastoris by Expression of a delta-6 desaturase gene from Cunninghamella echinulata.

Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA, C18:3 delta(6,9,12)) is synthesized by a delta-6 fatty acid desaturase using linoleic acid (LA, C18:2 delta(9,12)) as a substrate. To enable the production of GLA in the conventional yeast Pichia pastoris, we have isolated a cDNA encoding the delta-6 fatty acid desaturase from Cunninghamella echinulata MIAN6 and confirmed its function by heterogeneous expression in P. pastoris. Sequence analysis indicated that this cDNA sequence has an open reading frame of 1,404 bp, which encodes a 52 kDa peptide of 468 amino acids. This sequence has 64% identity to the previously reported delta-6 fatty acid desaturase from Rhizopus oryzae. The polypeptide has a cytochrome b5 domain at the N-terminus including the HPGG motif in the heme-binding region, as reported for other delta-6 fatty acid desaturases. In addition, this enzyme differs from other desaturases by the presence of three possible N-linked glycosylation sites. Analysis of the fatty acid composition demonstrated the accumulation of GLA to the level of 3.1% of the total fatty acids. Notably, the amounts of ginkgolic acid (C17:1) and palmitic acid (C16:0) were increased from 1.3% to 29.6% and from 15% to 33%, respectively. These results reveal that the modification of the fatty acid biosynthetic pathway by genetic manipulation in order to produce specific polyunsaturated fatty acids in P. pastoris is a promising technique.

Characterization of a novel exo-chitosanase, an exo-chitobiohydrolase, from Gongronella butleri.

An exo-chitosanase was purified from the culture filtrate of Gongronella butleri NBRC105989 to homogeneity by ammonium sulfate precipitation, followed by column chromatography using CM-Sephadex C-50 and Sephadex G-100. The enzyme comprised a monomeric protein with a molecular weight of approximately 47,000 according to sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE). The enzyme exhibited optimum activity at pH 4.0, and was stable between pH 5.0 and 11.0. It was most active at 45°C, but was stable at temperatures below 30°C. The enzyme hydrolyzed soluble chitosan and glucosamine (GlcN) oligomers larger than tetramers, but did not hydrolyze N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) oligomers. To clarify the mode of action of the enzyme, we used thin-layer chromatography (TLC) and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) to investigate the products resulting from the enzyme-catalyzed hydrolysis of chitosan and N1-acetylchitohexaose [(GlcN)5-GlcNAc] with a GlcNAc residue at the reducing end. The results indicated that the enzyme is a novel exo-type chitosanase, exo-chitobiohydrolase, that releases (GlcN)2 from the non-reducing ends of chitosan molecules. Analyses of the hydrolysis products of partially N-acetylated chitooligosaccharides revealed that the enzyme cleaves both GlcN-GlcNAc and GlcNAc-GlcN bonds in addition to GlcN-GlcN bonds in the substrate.

Gamma-linolenic acid production by Cunninghamella echinulata growing on complex organic nitrogen sources.

Growth of two strains of Cunninghamella echinulata on various nitrogen containing raw materials (corn gluten, corn steep, whey concentrate,yeast extract and tomato waste hydrolysate) yielded important amounts of biomass containing various quantities of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) rich cellular lipids. Especially, growth on tomato waste hydrolysate (TWH) yielded 17.6 g/l of biomass containing 39.6% oil and significant quantities of GLA corresponding to 800 mg/l GLA. Mycelium-bounded proteolytic activity was detected during early growth stages on TWH and declined thereafter, increasing the concentration of assimilable nitrogen in the medium. However, addition of glucose in the medium during the stationary phase triggered the biosynthesis of reserve lipid, since an increase of the proportion of neutral lipids from 45% to 79% in total lipids was observed, while polar lipids decreased from 35% to 12% and from 20% to 9% for glycolipids plus sphingolipids and phospholipids, respectively.

Complete genome of Gongronella sp. w5 provides insight into its relationship with plant.

Gongronella sp. w5 (w5) is a soil fungus isolated from Anhui, China. Here we report the high-quality genome sequence of w5 and its phenotypic characteristics based on genomic information. The genome of w5 consists of 34,723,828 bp assembled into 149 scaffolds and 11,302 predicted protein-coding genes. Genome analysis suggested that w5 may possess host cell infection capacity and maybe a biotrophic fungus that relies on plant sucrose as carbon source. W5 shows the ability of rapid invasion into the plant root cells based on CAZymes analysis. Further results evidenced that w5 can use sucrose as the carbon source. Plant inoculation revealed that w5 penetrates the root cells of Actinidia chinensis with its hypha, and simultaneously promotes plant growth. It may promote plant growth by secreting organic acid and facilitating phosphate acquisition. The new genomic data and phenotype features will facilitate future applications of this strain in biotechnology.

Characterization and phylogenetic analysis of a Cunninghamella bertholletiae isolate from a bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus).

BACKGROUND: Cunninghamella is a genus of the order Mucorales which includes saprophytic species, rarely causing mycoses. The most frequently reported in human mycoses is the thermophilic species Cunninghamella bertholletiae. However, this species does not appear to cause mucormycosis in animals, so there is scarce information about C. bertholletiae isolates from animals. AIMS: In this paper we describe the phenotypic and genotypic characterization, and the phylogenetic analysis, of an isolate of C. bertholletiae involved in a central nervous system mucormycosis in a dolphin. METHODS: The isolate studied in this publication was characterized using the current morphological and physiological identification system for Cunninghamella species. DNA sequencing and analysis of the D1/D2 regions of the 26S rRNA gene and the ITS-5.8S rRNA gene sequences were also performed. RESULTS: Colonies were fast-growing, white at first, although they became tannish-gray, covering the whole plate after 7 days of incubation at 30 and 40°C. Limited growth was observed after 7 days at 45°C. The micromorphology showed characteristic erect sporangiophores. The identification of the isolate was confirmed by DNA sequencing of the D1/D2 regions of the 26S and the ITS-5.8S (ITS) rRNA gene sequencing. CONCLUSIONS: In the phylogenetic study, the isolate clustered in the same clade as C. bertholletiae neotype strain although some differences were observed in the ITS sequences. In the cetacean cases, the possible sources of infection are unclear. The reasons why this pathogen has been found only in cetaceans and not in other domestic or wild animals are at the moment unknown and need further study.

Biotransformation of anabolic compound methasterone with Macrophomina phaseolina, Cunninghamella blakesleeana, and Fusarium lini, and TNF-α inhibitory effect of transformed products.

Microbial transformation of methasterone (1) was investigated with Macrophomina phaseolina, Cunninghamella blakesleeana, and Fusarium lini. Biotransformation of 1 with M. phaseolina yielded metabolite 2, while metabolites 3-7 were obtained from the incubation of 1 with C. blakesleeana. Metabolites 8-13 were obtained through biotransformation with F. lini. All metabolites, except 13, were found to be new. Methasterone (1) and its metabolites 2-6, 9, 10, and 13 were then evaluated for their immunomodulatory effects against TNF-α, NO, and ROS production. Among all tested compounds, metabolite 6 showed a potent inhibition of proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α (IC50=8.1±0.9µg/mL), as compared to pentoxifylline used as a standard (IC50=94.8±2.1µg/mL). All metabolites were also evaluated for the inhibition of NO production at concentration of 25µg/mL. Metabolites 6 (86.7±2.3%) and 13 (62.5±1.5%) were found to be the most potent inhibitors of NO as compared to the standard NG-monomethyl-l-arginine acetate (65.6±1.1%). All metabolites were found to be non-toxic against PC3, HeLa, and 3T3 cell lines. Observed inhibitory potential of metabolites 6 and 13 against pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α, as well as NO production makes them interesting leads for further studies.

The expression of cytochrome P-450 and cytochrome P-450 reductase genes in the simultaneous transformation of corticosteroids and phenanthrene by Cunninghamella elegans.

The expression of cytochrome P-450 and cytochrome P-450 reductase (CPR) genes in the conterminous biotransformation of corticosteroids and PAHs was studied in Cunninghamella elegans 1785/21Gp. We had previously used this strain as a microbial eucaryotic model for studying the relationship between mammalian steroid hydroxylation and the metabolization of PAHs. We reported that cytochrome P-450 reductase is involved in the biotransformaton of cortexolone and phenanthrene. RT-PCR and Northern blotting analyses indicated that the cytochrome P-450 and CPR genes appear to be inducible by both steroids and PAHs. The expression of the cytochrome P-450 gene was increased ninefold and the expression of the CPR gene increased 6.4-fold in cultures with cortexolone and/or phenanthrene in comparison with controls. We conclude that the increase in cytochrome P-450 gene expression was accompanied by an increase in cytochrome P-450 enzymatic activity levels.

Identification and sequencing of a cDNA encoding 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase from a fungus, Cunninghamella elegans and expression of the gene in Escherichia coli.

The fungus, Cunninghamella elegans has been widely used in bioremediation and microbial models of mammalian studies in many laboratories. Using the polymerase chain reaction to randomly amplify the insert directly from the single non-blue plaques of a C. elegans cDNA library, then partly sequencing and comparing with GenBank sequences, we have identified a clone which contains C. elegans 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase gene. The polymerase chain reaction product was cloned into a plasmid, pGEM-T Easy vector for full insert DNA sequencing. The 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase gene (1458 bases) and the deduced protein sequence were determined from the insert DNA sequence. The gene was found by open reading frame analysis and confirmed by the alignment of the deduced protein sequence with other published 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase sequences. Several highly conserved regions were found for the 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase sequences. The 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase gene was subcloned and over-expressed in a plasmid-E. coli system (pQE30). The cell lysate of this clone has a very high 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase enzyme activity. Most of the recombinant protein in this system was formed as insoluble inclusion bodies, but soluble in high concentration of urea-buffer. Ni-NTA resin was used to purify the recombinant protein which showed 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase enzyme activity. The recombinant protein has a predicted molecular size correlating with that revealed by sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis. The C. elegans 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase was in a cluster with yeast' 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase in the phylogenetic tree. Bacterial 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase and higher organisms' 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase were found in different clusters.

Cloning, sequencing, and expression in Escherichia coli of a cytochrome P450 gene from Cunninghamella elegans.

A polyclonal antibody against microsomes of a fungus, Cunninghamella elegans, was used to screen a C. elegans cDNA library. A cDNA clone, containing an open reading frame (ORF) encoding a protein of 389 amino acids (aa), was obtained. GenBank comparison (BLAST) showed that the protein was closely related to P450 because a heme-binding region, which is highly conserved in all P450 sequences, was found in the ORF protein. Using an oligo probe designed from this C. elegans heme-binding region to rescreen the cDNA library, we obtained three new clones. Sequence comparison showed that the three clones, with different length cDNA inserts, were from the same mRNA of the C. elegans P450 gene. One clone had the full C. elegans P450 gene, encoding 473 aa with a molecular mass of 54958.60, whereas the 389 was a part of the 473 aa without the N-terminal. The entire C. elegans P450 gene was successfully subcloned and overexpressed in a plasmid-Escherichia coli system (pQE30). Immunostaining with three antibodies (CYP1A1, CYP2E1, and CYP3A1) against mammalian P450 enzymes and benzidine staining for hemoproteins showed positive results for the recombinant protein expressed in E. coli. A phylogenetic tree was constructed by comparison of other fungal P450s to the C. elegans sequence. The C. elegans P450 clustered close to the cyp51 family and was named cyp509A1 by the International Committee on the Nomenclature for Cytochrome P450 Enzymes.

Harnessing indigenous plant seed oil for the production of bio-fuel by an oleaginous fungus, Cunninghamella blakesleeana- JSK2, isolated from tropical soil.

Cunninghamella blakesleeana- JSK2, a gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) producing tropical fungal isolate, was utilized as a tool to evaluate the influence of various plant seed oils on biomass, oleagenicity and bio-fuel production. The fungus accumulated 26 % total lipid of their dry biomass (2 g/l) and 13 % of GLA in its total fatty acid. Among the various plant seed oils tested as carbon sources for biotransformation studies, watermelon oil had an effect on biomass and total lipid increasing up to 9.24 g/l and 34 % respectively. Sunflower, pumpkin, and onion oil increased GLA content between 15-18 %. Interestingly, an indigenous biodiesel commodity, Pongamia pinnata oil showed tremendous effect on fatty acid profile in C. blakesleeana- JSK2, when used as a sole source of carbon. There was complete inhibition of GLA from 13 to 0 % and increase in oleic acid content, one of the key components of biodiesel to 70 % (from 20 % in control). Our results suggest the potential application of indigenous plant seed oils, particularly P. pinnata oil, for the production of economically valuable bio-fuel in oleaginous fungi in general, and C. blakesleeana- JSK2, in particular.

Metabolism of a fungicide mepanipyrim by soil fungus Cunninghamella elegans ATCC36112.

Mepanipyrim is a fungicide against several plant pathogens. However, no metabolic details have been established in fungi, which is the most important biomass in the natural environment. Cunninghamella elegans is a well-known fungal species with its strong resemblance to the mammalian xenobiotic metabolism. In this study, the detailed metabolic pathways of mepanipyrim were investigated with C. elegans. Approximately 87% of mepanipyrim was removed within 12 h with concomitant accumulation of nine metabolites. Structures of the metabolites were fully or tentatively identified with GC-MS and (1)H NMR. To determine the possible role of representative oxidative enzymes, piperonyl butoxide and methimazole were treated, and the kinetic responses of mepanipyrim and its metabolites were measured. Dose-dependent inhibition of metabolism was observed with piperonyl butoxide, while methimazole also inhibited the metabolism less effectively. The results indicate the possible involvement of cytochrome P450 and flavin-dependent monooxygenase in mepanipyrim metabolism. Comprehensive metabolic pathways can be deduced from the detailed analysis of metabolite profiles in control and inhibitor assays.