Self-Sustaining Triboelectric Nanosensors for Real-Time Urine Analysis in Smart Toilets.

Healthcare has undergone a revolutionary shift with the advent of smart technologies, and smart toilets (STs) are among the innovative inventions offering non-invasive continuous health monitoring. The present technical challenges toward this development include limited sensitivity of integrated sensors, poor stability, slow response and the requirement external energy supply alongside manual sample collection. In this article, triboelectric nanosensor array (TENSA) is introduced featuring electrodes crafted from laser-induced 3D graphene with functional polymers like polystyrene, polyimide, and polycaprolactone for real-time urine analysis while generating 50 volts output via urine droplet-based triboelectrification. Though modulating interfacial double-layer capacitance, these sensors exhibit exceptional sensitivity and selectivity in detecting a broad spectrum of urinary biomarkers, including ions, glucose, and urea with a classification precision of 95% and concentration identification accuracy of up to 0.97 (R2), supported by artificial neural networks. Upon exposure to urine samples containing elevated levels of Na+, K+, and NH4 +, a notable decrease (ranging from 32% to 68%) is observed in output voltages. Conversely, urea induces an increase up to 13%. Experimental validation confirms the stability, robustness, reliability, and reproducibility of TENSA, representing a significant advancement in healthcare technology, offering the potential for improved disease management and prevention strategies.

Evaluation of protocols to determine urine output and urinary urea nitrogen excretion in dairy cows with and without dietary salt supplementation.

Urine output and urinary urea-N excretion (UUNe) excretion are critical measures to accurately evaluate N metabolism in lactating dairy cows and environmental concerns related to manure N. The objectives of this study were: (1) to compare estimates of UUNe, urine output, and related variables from 3 pre-established measurement protocols (bladder catheterization, external collection cup, and spot sampling) and from dietary salt supplementation, (2) to study temporal variation in UUNe, urine output, and related variables as affected by measurement protocol, and (3) to evaluate urine specific gravity as a predictor of urine output. Twelve multiparous Holstein cows were used in a split-plot, Latin square design. Cows were randomly assigned to a diet (main plot) containing either 0.7% or 1.6% NaCl (DM basis) and then assigned to a sequence of 3 protocols (subplot) in a balanced 3 × 3 Latin square with 14-d period. For each protocol, measurements were conducted every 4 h for 3 consecutive days. Urine output was determined gravimetrically for bladder catheterization and external collection cup or based on measured cow BW, measured urinary creatinine concentration, and the assumed creatinine excretion of 29 mg/kg BW per day for spot sampling. Urine specific gravity was measured by refractometry. When averaged over a 3-d measurement period and compared with bladder catheterization, spot sampling underestimated urine output (6.8 kg/d; 20%) and UUNe (26 g/d; 13%) but exhibited greater concentration of urinary urea-N (+58 mg/dL; 10%). There were no differences in any measurements determined via bladder catheterization or external cup device protocols, except for urine output that tended to be 3.7 kg/d lower for collection cup compared with bladder catheterization. The 2 gravimetric protocols yielded lower urinary creatinine concentration than spot sampling (64.7 vs. 88.1 mg/dL) and lower creatinine excretion (25.3 mg/kg BW per day) than the value of 29 mg/kg BW per day generally assumed in the spot sampling protocol. Salt supplementation tended to increase urine output (+5.2 kg/d) and decrease urinary urea-N concentration (-93 mg/dL), urinary creatinine concentration (-9.5 mg/dL), milk protein concentration (-0.19 percentage unit) and milk protein yield (-70 g/d). There was greater temporal variation of urine output when measured via the collection cup compared with bladder catheterization in the first 2 d but not the third day of sampling, suggesting that an extended period of adaptation might have improved data quality of the collection cup protocol. The R2 of the linear regression to predict urine output with urine specific gravity was 67%, 73%, and 32% for bladder catheterization, collection cup, and spot sampling, respectively. In this study, spot sampling underestimated both urine output and UUNe, but UUNe determination did not differ between external collection cup and bladder catheterization. However, our data suggested the need to investigate the adaptation protocol, required days of measurements and the conversion of urine mass to urine volume to improve accuracy and precision of urine collection protocols.

Water-stable perovskite-on-polymer fluorescent microspheres for simultaneous monitoring of pH, urea, and urease.

Perovskite materials have attracted attention due to their excellent optical and electrical properties; however, their unsatisfactory stability limits their application in biochemical detection. In this paper, CsPbBr3 perovskite quantum dots were successfully encapsulated in poly(styrene/acrylamide) microspheres, using a swelling-shrinking method. The manufactured perovskite microspheres (PDPS composites) not only maintained strong photoluminescence (PL) stability but also demonstrated great water solubility. Additionally, a real-time pH monitoring platform was constructed based on the prepared PDPS composites and dopamine, and the system showed a good linear relationship in a pH range of 4-12. Furthermore, urea could be hydrolyzed to produce hydroxyl groups, thereby increasing the pH of the solution. Therefore, this system was then extended for urea and urease detection. As a result, the detection limits of urea and urease were recorded as 1.67 µM and 2.1 mU/mL, respectively. This development provides an interesting demonstration of the expanding list of applications of perovskite materials.

Evaluation of Residual Kidney Function during Once-Weekly Incremental Hemodialysis.

BACKGROUND: The initial once-weekly administration of incremental hemodialysis to patients with residual kidney function (RKF) has recently attracted considerable interest. METHODS: The aim of our study was to assess the performance of a series of different methods in measuring serum urea nitrogen and serum Cr (sCr) RKF in patients on once-weekly hemodialysis (1WHD). Evaluations were carried out by means of 24-h predialysis urine collection (Kr-24H) or 6-day inter-dialysis collection (Kr-IDI) and estimation of glomerular filtration rate based on (KrSUN + KrsCr)/2 for the purpose of identifying a simple reference calculation to be used in assessing RKF in patients on 1WHD dialysis. Ninety-five urine samples were collected from 12 1WHD patients. A solute solver urea and Cr kinetic modeling program was used to calculate residual urea and Cr clearances. Mann-Whitney U test, Pearson's correlation coefficient (R), and linear determination coefficient (R2) were used for statistical analysis. RESULTS: 1WHD patients displayed a mean KrSUN-IDI of 4.5 ± 1.2 mL/min, while KrSUN-24H corresponded to 4.1 ± 0.9 mL/min, mean KrsCr-IDI to 9.1 ± 4.0 mL/min, and KrsCr 24H to 8.9 ± 4.2 mL/min, with a high regression between IDI and 24-h clearances (for IDI had R2 = 0.9149 and for 24H had R2 = 0.9595). A good correlation was also observed between KrSUN-24H and (KrSUN + KrsCR/2) (R2 = 0.7466, p < 0.01. DISCUSSION: Urine collection over a 24-h predialysis period yielded similar results for both KrSUN and KrsCr compared to collection over a longer interdialytic interval (KrSUN + KrsCr)/2 could be applied to reliably assess RKF in patients on 1WHD. CONCLUSION: The parameters evaluated are suitable for use as a routine daily method indicating the commencement and continued use of the 1WHD Incremental Program.

Mean of creatinine clearance and urea clearance examined over 1 h estimates glomerular filtration rate accurately and precisely in children.

AIM: Accurate and precise estimation of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is essential in kidney disease. We evaluated the usefulness of the mean of creatinine clearance (CCr ) and urea clearance (CUN ) examined over a 1-h urine collection period (1-h (CCr + CUN )/2) in a retrospective, cross-sectional study across two centres, as a relatively simple method for estimating GFR in children. METHODS: Children aged ≤18 years who underwent inulin clearance (CIn ) tests were eligible. Two clearance values were obtained during a 2-h test consisting of two periods of 1 h each. The mean clearance in two periods was defined as 1-h clearance. 1-h (CCr + CUN )/2, 1-h CCr , 1-h CUN and GFR estimated by Cr-based and cystatin C (CysC)-based formulas for Japanese children were compared with CIn . Bland-Altman plots were used to evaluate correlations. The primary outcome measure was the correlation between 1-h (CCr + CUN )/2 and CIn . RESULTS: Fifty-three children were analysed. Their median age was 10.9 (interquartile range [IQR] 5.3-14.2) years, and median CIn and 1-h (CCr + CUN )/2 were 77.0 (IQR: 51.5-95.1) and 81.0 (IQR: 64.1-97.7) ml/min/1.73 m2 , respectively. Percentage difference of CIn and 1-h (CCr + CUN )/2 in the Bland-Altman plot was -11.2% (95% confidence interval - 15.3% - -7.1%), with 95% lower and upper limits of agreement of -40.3% and 18.0%, respectively. Thus, 1-h (CCr + CUN )/2 was 1.12 times CIn . CONCLUSION: 1 h (CCr + CUN )/2 was almost concordant with CIn . 1-h (CCr + CUN )/2 can estimate GFR accurately and precisely, making it a simple and speedy test for use in clinical practice.

The ratio of measured to estimated glomerular filtration rate may be a marker of early mortality and dialysis requirement.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that, in patients with CKD stage 5, measured GFR (mGFR), defined as the mean of urea and creatinine clearance, as measured by a 24-h urine collection, is a better measure of renal function than estimated GFR (eGFR), based on the CKD-EPI formula. This could be due to reduced muscle mass in this group. Its use is recommended in the ERBP guidelines. Unplanned dialysis initiation (DI) is associated with increased morbidity, mortality, and reduced modality choice and is generally considered undesirable. We hypothesized that the ratio mGFR/eGFR (M/E) aids prediction of death and DI. METHODS: All 24-h measurements of urea and creatinine excretion were extracted from the clinical biochemistry databases in Zealand. Data concerning renal diagnosis, comorbidity, biochemistry, medical treatment, mortality and date of DI, were extracted from patient notes, the National Patient Registry and the Danish Nephrology Registry. Patients were included if their eGFR was < 30 ml/min/1.73m2. The last available value for each patient was included. Follow-up was 12 months. RESULTS: One thousand two hundred sixty-five patients were included. M/E was median 0.91 ± 0.43. It was highly correlated to previous determinations. It was negatively correlated to eGFR, comorbidity, high age and female sex. It was positively related to albumin and negatively to C-reactive protein. M/E was higher in patients treated with ACE inhibitors and diuretics but no other treatment groups. On a multivariate analysis, M/E was negatively correlated with mortality and combined mortality/DI, but not DI. A post hoc analysis showed a negative correlation to DI at 3 months. For patients with an eGFR 10-15 ml/min/1.73m2, combined mortality and DI at 3 months was for low M/E (< 0.75) 36%, medium (0.75-1.25) 20%, high (> 1.25) 8%. A low M/E predicted increased need for unplanned DI. A supplementary analysis in 519 patients where body surface area values were available, allowing BSA-corrected M/E to be analyzed, revealed similar results. CONCLUSION: A low mGFR/eGFR ratio is associated with comorbidity, malnutrition, and inflammation. It is a marker of early DI, mortality, and unplanned dialysis initiation, independently of eGFR, age and comorbidity. Particular attention paid to patients with a low M/E may lower the incidence of unplanned dialysis requirement.

pH-modulated aggregation-induced emission of Au/Cu nanoclusters and its application to the determination of urea and dissolved ammonia.

A fluorescence platform is designed based on aggregation-induced emission of Au/Cu nanoclusters (Au/Cu NCs) driven by pH value. When pH increases from 6.0 to 7.0, Au/Cu NCs change from aggregation to dispersion, accompanied by the oxidation of Cu cores. Under the catalysis of urease, urea is hydrolysed to release ammonia, which further undergoes a hydrolysis reaction to produce OH-, causing the pH to increase. The fluorescence of Au/Cu NCs quenches linearly at 590 nm with the excitation wavelength at 320 nm when the concentration of urea varies from 5.0 to 100 µM. The limit of detection (LOD) and limit of quantification (LOQ) of urea are 2.23 and 7.45 µM, respectively. Combined with headspace single-drop microextraction technology, Au/Cu NCs are employed to monitor dissolved ammonia with low-cost and simple operation. The linear range of dissolved ammonia is from 20 to 300 µM. The LOD and LOQ of dissolved ammonia are 7.04 and 23.4 µM, respectively. The relative standard deviation (RSD) values of the intra-day and inter-day precision of urea are 2.4-3.0% and 3.0-3.7%, respectively, and those of dissolved ammonia are in the range 3.4-5.1% (intra-day precision) and 4.2-5.8% (inter-day precision). No interferences have been indentified in the determination of urea and dissolved ammonia. Finally, the proposed method has been applied to determine urea in human urine samples and dissolved ammonia in water samples with satisfactory results.Graphical abstract The pH increase produces the dispersion and decomposition of Au/Cu NCs, leading to the fluorescence quenching. Both urea and dissolved ammonia are detected successfully because they cause the pH change to alkaline.

Hyperbaric Oxygen Preconditioning Upregulates Heme OxyGenase-1 and Anti-Apoptotic Bcl-2 Protein Expression in Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats with Induced Postischemic Acute Kidney Injury.

Renal ischemia and reperfusion (I/R) injury is the most common cause of acute kidney injury (AKI). Pathogenesis of postischemic AKI involves hemodynamic changes, oxidative stress, inflammation process, calcium ion overloading, apoptosis and necrosis. Up to date, therapeutic approaches to treat AKI are extremely limited. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of hyperbaric oxygen (HBO) preconditioning on citoprotective enzyme, heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1), pro-apoptotic Bax and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 proteins expression, in postischemic AKI induced in normotensive Wistar and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). The animals were randomly divided into six experimental groups: SHAM-operated Wistar rats (W-SHAM), Wistar rats with induced postischemic AKI (W-AKI) and Wistar group with HBO preconditioning before AKI induction (W-AKI + HBO). On the other hand, SHR rats were also divided into same three groups: SHR-SHAM, SHR-AKI and SHR-AKI + HBO. We demonstrated that HBO preconditioning upregulated HO-1 and anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 protein expression, in both Wistar and SH rats. In addition, HBO preconditioning improved glomerular filtration rate, supporting by significant increase in creatinine, urea and phosphate clearances in both rat strains. Considering our results, we can also say that even in hypertensive conditions, we can expect protective effects of HBO preconditioning in experimental model of AKI.

Examination of potential novel biochemical factors in relation to prostate cancer incidence and mortality in UK Biobank.

BACKGROUND: Although prostate cancer is a leading cause of cancer death, its aetiology is not well understood. We aimed to identify novel biochemical factors for prostate cancer incidence and mortality in UK Biobank. METHODS: A range of cardiovascular, bone, joint, diabetes, renal and liver-related biomarkers were measured in baseline blood samples collected from up to 211,754 men at recruitment and in a subsample 5 years later. Participants were followed-up via linkage to health administrative datasets to identify prostate cancer cases. Hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals were calculated using multivariable-adjusted Cox regression corrected for regression dilution bias. Multiple testing was accounted for by using a false discovery rate controlling procedure. RESULTS: After an average follow-up of 6.9 years, 5763 prostate cancer cases and 331 prostate cancer deaths were ascertained. Prostate cancer incidence was positively associated with circulating vitamin D, urea and phosphate concentrations and inversely associated with glucose, total protein and aspartate aminotransferase. Phosphate and cystatin-C were the only biomarkers positively and inversely, respectively, associated with risk in analyses excluding the first 4 years of follow-up. There was little evidence of associations with prostate cancer death. CONCLUSION: We found novel associations of several biomarkers with prostate cancer incidence. Future research will examine associations by tumour characteristics.

Protein Intake to Maximize Whole-Body Anabolism during Postexercise Recovery in Resistance-Trained Men with High Habitual Intakes is Severalfold Greater than the Current Recommended Dietary Allowance.

BACKGROUND: Dietary protein supports resistance exercise-induced anabolism primarily via the stimulation of protein synthesis rates. The indicator amino acid oxidation (IAAO) technique provides a noninvasive estimate of the protein intake that maximizes whole-body protein synthesis rates and net protein balance. OBJECTIVE: We utilized IAAO to determine the maximal anabolic response to postexercise protein ingestion in resistance-trained men. METHODS: Seven resistance-trained men (mean ± SD age 24 ± 3 y; weight 80 ± 9 kg; 11 ± 5% body fat; habitual protein intake 2.3 ± 0.6 g·kg-1·d-1) performed a bout of whole-body resistance exercise prior to ingesting hourly mixed meals, which provided a variable amount of protein (0.20-3.00 g·kg-1·d-1) as crystalline amino acids modeled after egg protein. Steady-state protein kinetics were modeled with oral l-[1-13C]-phenylalanine. Breath and urine samples were taken at isotopic steady state to determine phenylalanine flux (PheRa), phenylalanine excretion (F13CO2; reciprocal of protein synthesis), and net balance (protein synthesis - PheRa). Total amino acid oxidation was estimated from the ratio of urinary urea and creatinine. RESULTS: Mixed model biphasic linear regression revealed a plateau in F13CO2 (mean: 2.00; 95% CI: 1.62, 2.38 g protein·kg-1·d-1) (r2 = 0.64; P Ë‚ 0.01) and in net balance (mean: 2.01; 95% CI: 1.44, 2.57 g protein·kg-1·d-1) (r2 = 0.63; P Ë‚ 0.01). Ratios of urinary urea and creatinine concentrations increased linearly (r = 0.84; P Ë‚ 0.01) across the range of protein intakes. CONCLUSIONS: A breakpoint protein intake of ∼2.0 g·kg-1·d-1, which maximized whole-body anabolism in resistance-trained men after exercise, is greater than previous IAAO-derived estimates for nonexercising men and is at the upper range of current general protein recommendations for athletes. The capacity to enhance whole-body net balance may be greater than previously suggested to maximize muscle protein synthesis in resistance-trained athletes accustomed to a high habitual protein intake. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT03696264.

Nephroprotective effects of Datura metel extract in gentamicin induced mice model: biochemical and histological evidences.

Datura metel is traditionally used as a remedy for renal toxicity. However, the nephroprotection has not been scientifically validated yet. To evaluate the nephroprotective like effect of methanolic extract of D. metel in gentamicin induced mice model, mice of either sex were divided into groups. One group received normal saline as negative control. The 2nd group received gentamicin 100mg/kg for 8 days as positive control, 3rd group received 50mg/kg silymarin as standard, while the reaming groups received 100, 200 and 300 mg/kg of MEDM and gentamicin 100mg/kg, for 8 days. The blood and urine samples were collected on 9th day, animals were then dissected and whole kidneys were removed and preserved in formalin for later histological examinations. The level of serum creatinine, blood urea nitrogen, urine creatinine and urine urea were significantly (P<0.05) elevated and the renal MDA level was also elevated significantly (P<0.05) by gentamicin in mice. After the treatment of test animals with MEDM, the elevated level of serum and urine biomarkers by gentamicin were reversed by MEDM. The nephroprotective effect was found in dose dependent manner. As the MEDM significantly protected the nephrotoxicity via its antioxidant effect. The findings of our study thus proved the scientific background for the nephroprotective effect of MEDM.

Copper nanoclusters@Al3+ complexes with strong and stable aggregation-induced emission for application in enzymatic determination of urea.

The aggregates of glutathione-capped CuNCs induced by Al3+ (named CuNCs@Al3+ complexes) show a stable aggregation-induced emission (AIE) for about 1 month. Their fluorescence maintains a high level in the pH range 4.0 to 7.0, while it quenches as pH increases from 7.0 to 7.7 or decreases from 4.0 to 3.0. Under urease-catalyzed hydrolysis, urea produces ammonia, which can be further hydrolyzed to yield OH-. This leads to a pH increase of the immediate environment. Hence, the CuNCs@Al3+ complexes are a suitable probe to determine urea. The fluorescence of CuNCs@Al3+ complexes quenches linearly at 585 nm with the excitation wavelength at 340 nm when the concentration of urea increases from 20 to 150 µM. The limit of detection (LOD) of urea is 5.86 µM. This sensitivity is superior to other reported works due to the narrow pH response range of CuNCs@Al3+ complexes. This method has been successfully applied for measuring urea in human urine samples with satisfactory recoveries. Graphic abstract Schematic representation of urea determination based on pH-responsive property of copper nanoclusters@Al3+ complexes. Ammonia is produced in the hydrolysis of urea by urease, and it is further hydrolyzed to yield OH-, leading to increasing pH of the environment.

Dietary supplementation of rumen-protected methionine decreases the nitrous oxide emissions of urine of beef cattle through decreasing urinary excretions of nitrogen and urea.

BACKGROUND: Two consecutive trials were carried out to study the effects of dietary supplementation of rumen-protected methionine (RPM) on nutrient digestibility, nitrogen (N) metabolism (Trial 1), and consequently the nitrous oxide (N2 O) emissions from urine in beef cattle (Trial 2). Eight 24-month-old castrated Simmental bulls with liveweights of 494 ± 28 kg, and four levels of dietary supplementation of RPM at 0, 10, 20, and 30 g head-1 d-1 , were allocated in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin square for Trial 1 and the N2 O emissions from the urine samples collected in Trial 1 were measured using a static incubation technique in Trial 2. RESULTS: Supplementation of RPM at 0, 10, 20, and 30 g head-1 d-1 to a basal ration deficient in methionine (Met) did not affect the apparent digestibility of dry matter, organic matter, neutral detergent fiber, or acid detergent fiber (P > 0.05), but decreased the urinary excretions of total N (P < 0.05) and urea (P < 0.001), increased the ratio of N retention / digested N (P < 0.05) in beef cattle, and decreased the estimated cattle urine N2 O-N emissions by 19.5%, 23.4%, and 32.6%, respectively (P < 0.001). CONCLUSION: Supplementation of RPM to Met-deficient rations was effective in improving the utilization rate of dietary N and decreasing the N2 O emissions from urine in beef cattle. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Signs of Dehydration after Hip Fracture Surgery: An Observational Descriptive Study.

Background and Objectives: Dehydration might be an issue after hip fracture surgery, but the optimal tools to identify the dehydrated condition have not been determined. The aim of the present study was to compare the characteristics of elderly postoperative patients who were classified as dehydrated according to the methods used in the clinic. Materials and Methods: Thirty-eight patients aged between 65 and 97 (mean, 82) years were studied after being admitted to a geriatric department for rehabilitation after hip fracture surgery. Each patient underwent blood analyses, urine sampling, and clinical examinations. Results: Patients ingested a mean of 1,008 mL (standard deviation, 309 mL) of fluid during their first day at the clinic. Serum osmolality increased significantly with the plasma concentrations of sodium, creatinine, and urea. Seven patients had high serum osmolality (≥300 mosmol/kg) that correlated with the presence of tongue furrows (p < 0.04), poor skin turgor (p < 0.03), and pronounced albuminuria (p < 0.03). Eight patients had concentrated urine (urine-specific gravity ≥ 1.025) that correlated with a low intake of liquid and with a decrease in body weight during the past month of -3.0 kg (25-75 th percentiles, -5.1 to -0.9) versus +0.2 (-1.9 to +2.7) kg (p < 0.04). Conclusions: Renal fluid conservation of water, either in the form of hyperosmolality or concentrated urine, was found in 40% of the patients after hip fracture surgery. Hyperosmolality might not indicate a more severe fluid deficit than is indicated by concentrated urine but suggests an impaired ability to concentrate the urine.

Bioelectrical Impedance Measurements for Assessment of Kidney Function in Critically Ill Patients.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the use of multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis to predict creatinine/urea clearance based on 24 hours urine collection. A practical formula was developed, and its performance was compared with that of established formulas such as Cockcroft-Gault, Modification of Diet in Renal Disease, and Jelliffe's. DESIGN: An open-label prospective observational cohort study. SETTING: A 12-bed ICU at a nonuniversity major teaching hospital (Gelre ziekenhuizen Apeldoorn/Zutphen, The Netherlands). PATIENTS: Adult critical care patients with an expected ICU length of stay at admission of at least 48 hours. INTERVENTIONS: Each patient's body composition was assessed using a validated Quadscan 4000 analyzer (Bodystat, Isle of Man, British Isles). Twenty-four hours urine was collected, and laboratory variables in serum including creatinine, urea, and albumin were obtained at the beginning and end of the collection period. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A total of 151 patients, stratified to an acute and nonacute ICU-group, were enrolled in the study over a 2-year period. A formula to predict creatinine/urea clearance based on 24 hours urine collection was developed using stepwise linear regression using a training data set of 75 patients. This formula was subsequently tested and compared with other relevant predictive equations using a validation data set of 76 patients. Serum creatinine values ranged from 40 to 446 µmol/L. With the predictive model based on estimated body cell mass and a "prediction marker" more than 71% of the observed variance in creatinine/urea clearance based on 24 hours urine collection could be explained. Predictive performance was superior to the other eight evaluated models (R = 0.39-0.55) and demonstrated to be constant over the whole range of creatinine/urea clearance based on 24 hours urine collection values. CONCLUSIONS: Multifrequency bioelectrical impedance analysis measurements can be used to predict creatinine/urea clearance based on 24 hours urine collection with superior performance than currently established prediction models. This rapid, noninvasive method enables correction for influences of a patient's actual body composition and may prove valuable in daily clinical practice.

Fractional excretion of urea: A simple tool for the differential diagnosis of acute kidney injury in cirrhosis.

Current approaches to determine the cause of acute kidney injury (AKI) in patients with cirrhosis are suboptimal. The aim of this study was to determine the utility of fractional excretion of urea (FEUrea) for the differential diagnosis of AKI in patients with cirrhosis. A retrospective analysis was performed in patients (n = 50) with cirrhosis and ascites admitted with AKI. Using adjudicated etiology assessment as the reference standard, receiver operating curves and optimal cutoff, sensitivity (Sn), and specificity (Sp) for the diagnosis of prerenal azotemia (PRA), type 1 hepatorenal syndrome (HRS), and acute tubular necrosis (ATN) were derived. Validation was performed in an independent cohort (n = 50) and by bootstrap analysis. The causes of AKI (derivation:validation cohorts) were: PRA 21:21, HRS 18:15, and ATN 11:14. Median FEUrea was statistically different across all etiologies of AKI in the derivation cohort (PRA 30.1 vs. HRS 20.2 vs. ATN 43.6; P < 0.001) and validation cohort (PRA 23.1 vs. HRS 13.3 vs. ATN 44.7; P < 0.001). The area underneath the curve (cutoff, Sn/Sp) for FEUrea was 0.96 (33.4, 85/100) for ATN versus non-ATN, 0.87 (28.7, 75/83) for HRS versus non-HRS, and 0.81 (21.6, 90/61) for PRA versus HRS. When applied to the validation cohort, Sn/Sp were maintained for ATN versus non-ATN (93/97), HRS versus non-HRS (100/63), and for PRA versus HRS (67/80). After bootstrapping, Sn/Sp for FEUrea in the ATN versus non-ATN, HRS versus non-HRS, and PRA versus HRS was 88/96, 63/97, and 55/87, respectively. CONCLUSION: FEUrea is a promising tool for the differential diagnosis of AKI in patients with cirrhosis. (Hepatology 2018;68:224-233).

A fast and simple headspace gas chromatographic technique for quantitatively analyzing urea in human urine.

A fast and convenient headspace gas chromatographic (HS-GC) approach was described for the estimation of urea in human urine. The HS-GC could detect the generated carbon dioxide derived from the urease-catalyzed hydrolysis of urea. It was found that the hydrolysis of urea catalyzed by urease was completed within 40 min at 35 °C. The results proved the great accuracy (relative errors ≤ 8.48%) and precision (RSD ≤ 2.66%) of the HS-GC approach. Moreover, the recoveries ranged from 97.9% to 101.5%. The new approach is rapid and automated, which provides a new way to routinely analyze urea in urine for the control of metabolic disease.

Reusable nano-BG-FET for point-of-care estimation of ammonia and urea in human urine.

A back-gate-field-effect-transistor (BG-FET) has been developed to selectively detect ammonia and urea. The BG-FET was prepared on a p-type Si substrate with an n-type channel of CdS-TiO2 nanocomposite and poly-methyl methacrylate film as dielectric layer. The reusability of the sensor was ensured by putting it as a cover to a chamber where samples were detected. The BG-FET showed an increase in drain current with the increase in ammonia release from chamber because higher numbers of charge carriers were created when ammonia adsorped on CdS-TiO2 nanostructures. Control experiments suggested that the variation in current-to-voltage response of BG-FET could also be calibrated to measure the activity of a host of other hazardous gases. The lowest concentration of ammonia detected was ∼0.85 ppm with a response time of 30 s at a gate voltage of 0.5 V or less, which were superior than available field effect transistors ammonia sensors. Addition of urease in urine liberated ammonia equivalent to urea content in urine, which could be detected by the proposed BGFET. The urea-urease enzyme catalysis reaction made the sensor specific in detecting the biomarker. The accuracy, sensitivity, and reusability of the device was found to be suitable to develop a point-of-care testing device for ammonia and urea detection.

Assessment of dialysis adequacy: beyond urea kinetic measurements.

Adequacy of dialysis is a term that has been used for many years based on measurement of small solute clearance using urea and creatinine. This has been shown in some but not all studies in adults to correlate with survival. However, small solute clearance is just one minor part of the effectiveness of dialysis and in fact 'optimum' dialysis, rather than 'adequate' dialysis is what most paediatric nephrologists would want for their patients. Additional ways to assess the success of dialysis in children would include dialysis access complications and longevity, preservation of residual kidney function, body composition, biochemical and haematological control, nutrition and growth, discomfort during the dialysis process and psychosocial adjustment including hospitalisation and school attendance. These criteria need to be balanced against a dialysis programme that has the least possible adverse effects on quality of life.