Road crossing behavior and preferences among pedestrians: From the lens of the theory of interpersonal behavior.

OBJECTIVE: As a major safety intervention, infrastructural facilities such as footbridges, underpasses or signals are provided for pedestrians to remove their direct interactions with vehicles and consequently ensure safe crossing as they attempt to cross roadways. Interestingly, it is evident that even within the proximity of footbridges or underpasses, some individuals are more willing to take the risk of crossing at-grade even where there are no signals or crosswalk markings to separate their movement from vehicles. These crossing alternatives may have different utilization depending on location and road user types. Therefore, sustainable crossing facilities are needed to meet pedestrian needs. This study attempts to investigate the factors that influence pedestrians to avoid provided footbridges and engage in at-grade crossing behaviors. METHODS: The crossing point preference is an interpersonal behavior which is a multifaceted and complex phenomenon involving conscious (intentions) and subconscious (habits) factors. This study employs Triandis' Theory of Interpersonal Behavior (TIB) as a theoretical framework and structural equation modeling to achieve study objectives. Pedestrians were intercepted randomly and socio-demographics, trip characteristics and perceptions data collected through a stated preference survey. RESULTS: Perceived consequence, affect, and social factors were found as significant antecedents of at-grade crossing intentions. Habits and facilitating conditions significantly moderate the impact of crossing intentions on actual at-grading crossing behavior. Pedestrians' perceived consequence was found to significantly mediate the impact of social factors and affective factors on intention to cross at-grade. Apart from gender, age, satisfaction with footbridge features, work trips, and crossing frequency were all significant determinants of actual crossing at-grade behavior. CONCLUSIONS: The study findings can help road safety agencies provide acceptable sustainable facilities that will be used by pedestrians to ensure that the purpose of investments toward pedestrian crossing safety is achieved. Effective road safety education and awareness campaigns on negative consequences of crossing at-grade, while highlighting the benefits of using provided footbridges are suggested to be undertaken by government agencies.

Bivariate ordered probit modelling of motorcycle riders and pillion passengers' injury severities relationship and associated risk factors.

This study simultaneously modelled the injury severity of motorcycle riders and their pillion passengers and determine the associated risk factors. The analysis is based on motorcycle crashes data in Ashanti region of Ghana spanning from 2017 to 2019. The study implemented bivariate ordered probit model to identify the possible risk factors under the premise that the injury severity of pillion passenger is endogenously related to that of the rider in the event of crash. The model provides more efficient estimates by considered the common unobserved factors shared between rider and pillion passenger. The result shows a significant positive relationship between the two injury severities with a correlation coefficient of 0.63. Thus, the unobservable factors that increase the probability of the rider to sustain more severe injury in the event of crash also increase that of their corresponding pillion passenger. The rider and their pillion passenger injury severities have different propensity to some of the risk factors including passengers' gender, day of week, road width and light condition. In addition, the study found that time of day, weather condition, collision type, and number of vehicles involved in the crash jointly influence the injury severity of both rider and pillion passenger significantly.

Understanding the relationship between road users and the roadway infrastructure in Ghana.

Ghana exemplifies the contribution of road crashes to mortality and morbidity in Africa, partly due to a growing population and increasing car ownership, where fatalities have increased by 12 to 15 % annually since 2008 (National Road Safety Authority (NRSA), 2017). The study described in this paper focused on understanding driver behavior at unsignalized junctions in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. Understanding driver behavior at unsignalized junctions is particularly important since failure to stop or yield can seriously affect vulnerable road users. The study's objectives were to develop relationships between driver behavior and junction characteristics. Understanding the characteristics that lead to determining what factors influence a driver's behavioral response at rural junctions provides information for policy makers to determine the best strategies to address these behaviors. The study evaluated stopping behavior at rural junctions. Driver behavior was extracted from video views of ten junctions in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. A total of 3,420 vehicles were observed across all ten junctions during data collection before any analysis was conducted. The type of stop was selected as a surrogate measure of safety. Logistic regression was used to model stopping behavior at the selected junctions. The analysis showed drivers were more likely to stop when going straight (versus a left turn) and left turning vehicles were more likely to stop than right turning vehicles. Additionally, single unit trucks and tro-tros were more likely to stop than other vehicle types. Drivers were also much more likely to stop when channelization, intersection lighting, or speed humps were present. Drivers at junctions with 4-approaches were also more likely to stop than those with 3 approaches. The results from this research contribute valuable information about what factors contribute to positive safety behaviors at rural junctions. This provides guidance for safety professionals to select solutions and can be a valuable tool to predict the economical effectiveness of solutions to addressing junction safety in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) such as Ghana. The results can also provide insight and recommendations to Ghanaian road safety agencies and launch sustainable efforts to raise community awareness toward decreasing road crash fatalities in Ghana.

The use of non-standard motorcycle helmets in low- and middle-income countries: a multicentre study.

BACKGROUND: The use of non-standard motorcycle helmets has the potential to undermine multinational efforts aimed at reducing the burden of road traffic injuries associated with motorcycle crashes. However, little is known about the prevalence or factors associated with their use. METHODS: Collaborating institutions in nine low- and middle-income countries undertook cross-sectional surveys, markets surveys, and reviewed legislation and enforcement practices around non-standard helmets. FINDINGS: 5563 helmet-wearing motorcyclists were observed; 54% of the helmets did not appear to have a marker/sticker indicating that the helmet met required standards and interviewers judged that 49% of the helmets were likely to be non-standard helmets. 5088 (91%) of the motorcyclists agreed to be interviewed; those who had spent less than US$10 on their helmet were found to be at the greatest risk of wearing a non-standard helmet. Data were collected across 126 different retail outlets; across all countries, regardless of outlet type, standard helmets were generally 2-3 times more expensive than non-standard helmets. While seven of the nine countries had legislation prohibiting the use of non-standard helmets, only four had legislation prohibiting their manufacture or sale and only three had legislation prohibiting their import. Enforcement of any legislation appeared to be minimal. INTERPRETATION: Our findings suggest that the widespread use of non-standard helmets in low- and middle-income countries may limit the potential gains of helmet use programmes. Strategies aimed at reducing the costs of standard helmets, combined with both legislation and enforcement, will be required to maximise the effects of existing campaigns.

Public perceptions of vehicular traffic emissions on health risk in Lagos metropolis Nigeria: A critical survey.

The perception and behavior of the public is key in reducing Traffic-related air pollution health burdens which has become an increasingly alarming problem in many cities across the globe. The study assessed the perception of the public about vehicle traffic emissions and the health hazard associated with them in Lagos, Nigeria using structured questionnaires. Multivariate statistical analysis and structural equation modeling were performed to determine the factors that were associated with the participant's perception of traffic air pollution and the health risks it presents. The findings revealed the majority (78.9%) of the respondents were aware of the haze air pollution from vehicles and its adverse effects on health. The regression model showed a significant relationship between age, education status, employment status, road proximity, vehicle ownership and air pollution awareness (P < 0.05). However, the structural equation model SEM revealed that age, gender, marital status, education, employment status, and road proximity showed statistical significance (p < 0.05) and indicated a linear relationship to vehicular emissions perception. The findings suggest the need to increase public education for all ages and especially for roadside residents on the effects of prolonged exposure and long-term effects of transport-related air pollution and associated risk. The result is applicable in many developing cities, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa.

The relationship between driver and passenger's seatbelt use: a bivariate probit analysis.

Vehicle seatbelt has been shown to have a beneficial impact on occupants. However, some occupants do not use the seatbelt when inside a moving vehicle. Despite the numerous investigation on the risk factors associated with seatbelt use by occupants, little is known about the relationship between driver and passenger seatbelt use. This gap is analyzed with road side observational survey data on driver and front-right seat passenger's seatbelt use behaviour using bivariate probit model. The use of the bivariate probit model is based on the premise that the front-right passenger's seatbelt use is endogenously related to that of the driver. Out of the 5,433 vehicles observed, the prevalence rate of driver and front-right passengers' seatbelt use were 81% and 33%, respectively. In addition, there is a positive relationship between driver and passenger's seatbelt use with correlation coefficient of 0.53. Thus, the unobserved factors that influence the probability of a driver seatbelt use also influence their front-right passenger's seatbelt use propensity.

Modelling risk factors for red light violation in the Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana.

Red light running places the violator and other road users at risk of road traffic crash. The aim of this research was to undertake a baseline study to establish the current rate of red light running in the Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana and to determine the associated risk factors. An uninterrupted road side observational survey was conducted at 10 signalized intersections using pro-forma checklist. A binary logit model was employed to determine the risk factors associated with traffic light violations. Overall, drivers were observed running the red light in 35% of all the red phases studied. From the statistical model, red light running was found to be influenced by the age and gender of the driver, presence of a passenger in the vehicle, vehicle type, junction type, cycle length of the signal and queue length. There is a need for targeted public awareness campaigns on the dangers of red light running. The education on red light violation must be accompanied by sustained Police enforcement of the traffic law to reduce the rate of violation. Automatic surveillance cameras should be installed at all critical signalized intersections to supplement Police efforts to enforce traffic safety laws and regulations.

Road traffic crashes at night-time: characteristics and risk factors.

The study was to examine the nature and risk factors associated with road traffic crashes at night in Ghana and identify potential measures to control them. Crash and injury data for the period 2013-2017 were analyzed. The fatality index and fatal crash ratio measures were employed to assess the severity of injuries among traffic participants. Statistical analysis was carried out for the variables using contingency tables and the chi-square (χ2) tests to assess statistical significance. Generally, night-time traffic crashes resulted in severer injury outcomes than crashes in the hours of daylight (χ2(2)=292.7, p < 0.001). The relative risk of death in a night traffic crash was 1.3 times that during the daytime. The risk of death was highest among pedestrians (44%) and motorcyclist (18%) compared to bus/mini-bus occupants (16%) and car occupants (11%) and the observed percentage differences were significant (χ2(14)=2303.2, p < 0.001). Most of the collisions (67%) occurred at the early hours of the night, between 18:00 and 22:00 hours. Poor night visibility coupled with poor visual guidance on roads are the key contributory risk factors associated with night travels. Policies must be geared towards provision of functioning street lights in built-up areas, road line markings, delineators and signage for the highways and arterial roads.

A bivariate probit analysis of child passenger's sitting behaviour and restraint use in motor vehicle.

Motor vehicle injuries are a leading cause of death among children worldwide, though many of these deaths are preventable. Buckling young children in age- and size-appropriate car seats, booster seats, or seat belts and also seating them in appropriate position can lead to a significant reduction of serious and fatal injuries. This study investigated sitting behaviour and restraint use among child passengers through cross-sectional observational surveys conducted in Kumasi, Ghana. A bivariate probit model was developed for simultaneous determination of the contributing factors influencing child passenger's sitting behaviour and restraint use. The results showed that 26% of the child passengers observed were occupying the front seat and the prevalence rate of restraint use was 4.5%. The developed bivariate probit model clearly highlights the existence of interrelationship between child passenger's sitting position and restraint use. The key factors simultaneously influencing child passenger's sitting position and restraint use include vehicle type, driver's gender, driver's belt use, child's age, and the presence of other child or adult passenger. Furthermore, time of day and day of week also influence child passenger sitting behaviour but not their restraint use. These findings provide insight for better understanding of child transporting practices and the contributing factors influencing their sitting behaviour and restraint use. The findings also highlight the need for policy makers to design effective countermeasures to promote rear sitting and restraint use among child passengers.

The effect of road and environmental characteristics on pedestrian hit-and-run accidents in Ghana.

The number of pedestrians who have died as a result of being hit by vehicles has increased in recent years, in addition to vehicle passenger deaths. Many pedestrians who were involved in road traffic accident died as a result of the driver leaving the pedestrian who was struck unattended at the scene of the accident. This paper seeks to determine the effect of road and environmental characteristics on pedestrian hit-and-run accidents in Ghana. Using pedestrian accident data extracted from the National Road Traffic Accident Database at the Building and Road Research Institute (BRRI) of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Ghana, a binary logit model was employed in the analysis. The results from the estimated model indicate that fatal accidents, unclear weather, nighttime conditions, and straight and flat road sections without medians and junctions significantly increase the likelihood that the vehicle driver will leave the scene after hitting a pedestrian. Thus, integrating median separation and speed humps into road design and construction and installing street lights will help to curb the problem of pedestrian hit-and-run accidents in Ghana.

Under-reporting of road traffic crash data in Ghana.

Having reliable estimates of the shortfalls in road traffic crash data is an important prerequisite for setting more realistic targets for crash/casualty reduction programmes and for a better appreciation of the socio-economic significance of road traffic crashes. This study was carried out to establish realistic estimates of the overall shortfall (under-reporting) in the official crash statistics in Ghana over an eight-year period (1997-2004). Surveys were conducted at hospitals and among drivers to generate relevant alternative data which were then matched against records in police crash data files and the official database. Overall shortfalls came from two sources, namely, 'non-reporting' and 'under-recording'. The results show that the level of non-reporting varied significantly with the severity of the crash from about 57% for property damage crashes through 8% for serious injury crashes to 0% for fatal crashes. Crashes involving cyclists and motorcyclists were also substantially non-reported. Under-recording on the other hand declined significantly over the period from an average of 37% in 1997-1998 to 27% in 2003-2004. Thus, the official statistics of road traffic crashes in Ghana are subject to significant shortfalls that need to be accounted for. Correction factors have therefore been suggested for adjusting the official data.

Analysis of fatal road traffic crashes in Ghana.

The major objective of this study was to identify the risk factors associated with fatal road traffic crashes (RTCs) and to propose remedial measures to address them. Fatal RTC data for the period 2005-2007 in Ghana were analysed using the Micro-computer Accident Analysis Package (MAAP) software. Other transport-related research works were reviewed and incorporated in the article. The study showed that pedestrians accounted for 42% of all road traffic fatalities and nearly one-third (33%) of these crashes occurred during the early night-time hours. Children alone constituted almost one-third of all pedestrian fatalities. The occupants of goods vehicles accounted for 12% of all road traffic fatalities although goods vehicles constitute just about 9% of the total motor vehicle population in Ghana. Pedestrians, especially children bear a disproportionately high share of road traffic fatalities in Ghana. The risk of being killed as a pedestrian in traffic is exacerbated during night time. Excessive vehicular speeds, inappropriate use of goods vehicles for passenger transport, excessive loading and inadequate trauma care are the key contributory risk factors to the high number of road traffic fatalities. Concerted efforts spanning education, engineering, enforcement and trauma care are needed to stem the rise in fatal crashes in Ghana.

Prevalence of helmet use among motorcycle users in Tamale Metropolis, Ghana: an observational study.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate the prevalence of helmet use among riders and pillion riders of motorcycles in the Tamale Metropolis of Ghana. METHODS: Cross-sectional observations of helmet use were made at locations where traffic generally slowed down. Statistical analysis was carried out for variables by calculating chi-square (χ(2)) tests to assess statistical significance. RESULTS: A total of 3115 riders and 1058 pillion riders (passengers) were observed at 10 different sites. The overall helmet use for riders was 34.2 percent and that for pillion riders was 1.9 percent. Riders' helmet use rate was highest among the elderly (49.6%), followed by adults (34.3%) and lowest for young people (21.9%) and the observed percentage differences were significant (χ(2)((2))= 67.1; p < .001). A marked difference (χ(2)((1))= 6.7; p = .0096) in helmet use was observed between riders riding within the central business district (CBD; 36.5%) and those outside the CBD (32.1%). Riders with at least one pillion rider (27.4%) were less likely to wear a helmet compared to riders riding alone without passengers (37.3%; χ(2)((1))= 29.347; p < .001). CONCLUSION: Helmet use by motorcyclists in Ghana is generally low. There is a need for public awareness campaigns on the safety benefits of helmets to increase its prevalence in Ghana. The education on helmet use must be accompanied by sustained enforcement of the road traffic law by the traffic police to ensure compliance and change in attitudes.

Observed seat belt use in Kumasi Metropolis, Ghana.

We conducted an observational survey of seat belt use to determine the use rate of drivers and front-right passengers of vehicles in Kumasi, Ghana. Unobtrusive observations of seat belt use were made at 41 locations composed of signalized intersections and roundabouts where vehicles come to a halt or slow down considerably. The overall driver seat belt use rate was 17.6% compared to 4.9% for front-right passengers. Driver belt use was 33.2% for private cars, 9.0% for taxis, 8.3% for minibus (trotro), 13.1% for large buses and 9.7% for trucks. Overall seat belt use was higher for female drivers than for male drivers (44.8% versus 16.4%, p < .001), was lowest within the Central Business District (CBD) compared to the outskirts of the city (16.3% versus 21.0%, p < .001) and seat belt use rate increased with age. Passengers belted more often if drivers were belted, but about three-quarters of male passengers and 70-80% of female passengers were unbelted even when drivers were belted. In conclusion, the seat belt use rate was generally low in Kumasi, Ghana, and it is a function of occupant seating position, gender, vehicle type and usage, age group, and location setting. The results provide important preliminary data about seat belt use, particularly among male drivers and commercial vehicle occupant population. The study also suggests the need to develop effective strategies and programs that address low seat belt use in Ghana.