Multimodal Imaging Probe Development for Pancreatic ß Cells: From Fluorescence to PET.

Pancreatic ß cells are responsible for insulin secretion and are important for glucose regulation in a healthy body and diabetic disease patient without prelabeling of islets. While the conventional biomarkers for diabetes have been glucose and insulin concentrations in the blood, the direct determination of the pancreatic ß cell mass would provide critical information for the disease status and progression. By combining fluorination and diversity-oriented fluorescence library strategy, we have developed a multimodal pancreatic ß cell probe PiF for both fluorescence and for PET (positron emission tomography). By simple tail vein injection, PiF stains pancreatic ß cells specifically and allows intraoperative fluorescent imaging of pancreatic islets. PiF-injected pancreatic tissue even facilitated an antibody-free islet analysis within 2 h, dramatically accelerating the day-long histological procedure without any fixing and dehydration step. Not only islets in the pancreas but also the low background of PiF in the liver allowed us to monitor the intraportal transplanted islets, which is the first in vivo visualization of transplanted human islets without a prelabeling of the islets. Finally, we could replace the built-in fluorine atom in PiF with radioactive 18F and successfully demonstrate in situ PET imaging for pancreatic islets.

Chemoselective Dual Labeling of Native and Recombinant Proteins.

The attachment of two different functionalities in a site-selective fashion represents a great challenge in protein chemistry. We report site specific dual functionalizations of peptides and proteins capitalizing on reactivity differences of cysteines in their free (thiol) and protected, oxidized (disulfide) forms. The dual functionalization of interleukin 2 and EYFP proceeded with no loss of bioactivity in a stepwise fashion applying maleimide and disulfide rebridging allyl-sulfone groups. In order to ensure broader applicability of the functionalization strategy, a novel, short peptide sequence that introduces a disulfide bridge was designed and site-selective dual labeling in the presence of biogenic groups was successfully demonstrated.

Two-Photon Dye Cocktail for Dual-Color 3D Imaging of Pancreatic Beta and Alpha Cells in Live Islets.

Insulin-secreting beta cells together with glucagon-producing alpha cells play an essential role in maintaining the optimal blood glucose level in the body, so the development of selective probes for imaging of these cell types in live islets is highly desired. Herein we report the development of a 2-glucosamine-based two-photon fluorescent probe, TP-ß, that is suitable for imaging of beta cells in live pancreatic islets from mice. Flow cytometry studies confirmed that TP-ß is suitable for isolation of primary beta cells. Moreover, two-photon imaging of TP-ß-stained pancreatic islets showed brightly stained beta cells in live islets. Insulin enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays revealed that TP-ß has no effect on glucose-stimulated insulin secretion from the stained islet. Finally, to develop a more convenient islet imaging application, we combined our recently published alpha-cell-selective probe TP-α with TP-ß to make a "TP islet cocktail". This unique dye cocktail enabled single excitation (820 nm) and simultaneous dual-color imaging of alpha cells (green) and beta cells (red) in live pancreatic islets. This robust TP islet cocktail may serve as a valuable tool for basic diabetic studies.

Mitochondria Targeted Protein-Ruthenium Photosensitizer for Efficient Photodynamic Applications.

Organelle-targeted photosensitization represents a promising approach in photodynamic therapy where the design of the active photosensitizer (PS) is very crucial. In this work, we developed a macromolecular PS with multiple copies of mitochondria-targeting groups and ruthenium complexes that displays highest phototoxicity toward several cancerous cell lines. In particular, enhanced anticancer activity was demonstrated in acute myeloid leukemia cell lines, where significant impairment of proliferation and clonogenicity occurs. Finally, attractive two-photon absorbing properties further underlined the great significance of this PS for mitochondria targeted PDT applications in deep tissue cancer therapy.

A Multisite-Binding Switchable Fluorescent Probe for Monitoring Mitochondrial ATP Level Fluctuation in Live Cells.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), commonly produced in mitochondria, is required by almost all the living organisms; thus fluorescent probes for monitoring mitochondrial ATP levels fluctuation are essential and highly desired. Herein, we report a multisite-binding switchable fluorescent probe, ATP-Red 1, which selectively and rapidly responds to intracellular concentrations of ATP. Live-cell imaging indicated that ATP-Red 1 mainly localized to mitochondria with good biocompatibility and membrane penetration. In particular, with the help of ATP-Red 1, we successfully observed not only the decreased mitochondrial ATP levels in the presence of KCN and starvation state, but also the increased mitochondrial ATP levels in the early stage of cell apoptosis. These results indicate that ATP-Red 1 is a useful tool for investigating ATP-relevant biological processes.

Glucagon-Secreting Alpha Cell Selective Two-Photon Fluorescent Probe TP-α: For Live Pancreatic Islet Imaging.

Two-photon (TP) microscopy has an advantage for live tissue imaging which allows a deeper tissue penetration up to 1 mm comparing to one-photon (OP) microscopy. While there are several OP fluorescence probes in use for pancreatic islet imaging, TP imaging of selective cells in live islet still remains a challenge. Herein, we report the discovery of first TP live pancreatic islet imaging probe; TP-α (Two Photon-alpha) which can selectively stain glucagon secreting alpha cells. Through fluorescent image based screening using three pancreatic cell lines, we discovered TP-α from a TP fluorescent dye library TPG (TP-Green). In vitro fluorescence test showed that TP-α have direct interaction and appear glucagon with a significant fluorescence increase, but not with insulin or other hormones/analytes. Finally, TP-α was successfully applied for 3D imaging of live islets by staining alpha cell directly. The newly developed TP-α can be a practical tool to evaluate and identify live alpha cells in terms of localization, distribution and availability in the intact islets.

Development of targetable two-photon fluorescent probes to image hypochlorous Acid in mitochondria and lysosome in live cell and inflamed mouse model.

Hypochlorous acid (HOCl), as a highly potent oxidant, is well-known as a key "killer" for pathogens in the innate immune system. Recently, mounting evidence indicates that intracellular HOCl plays additional important roles in regulating inflammation and cellular apoptosis. However, the organelle(s) involved in the distribution of HOCl remain unknown, causing difficulty to fully exploit its biological functions in cellular signaling pathways and various diseases. One of the main reasons lies in the lack of effective chemical tools to directly detect HOCl at subcellular levels due to low concentration, strong oxidization, and short lifetime of HOCl. Herein, the first two-photon fluorescent HOCl probe (TP-HOCl 1) and its mitochondria- (MITO-TP) and lysosome- (LYSO-TP) targetable derivatives for imaging mitochondrial and lysosomal HOCl were reported. These probes exhibit fast response (within seconds), good selectivity, and high sensitivity (<20 nM) toward HOCl. In live cell experiments, both probes MITO-TP and LYSO-TP were successfully applied to detect intracellular HOCl in corresponding organelles. In particular, the two-photon imaging of MITO-TP and LYSO-TP in murine model shows that higher amount of HOCl can be detected in both lysosome and mitochondria of macrophage cells during inflammation condition. Thus, these probes could not only help clarify the distribution of subcellular HOCl, but also serve as excellent tools to exploit and elucidate functions of HOCl at subcellular levels.

Potential impact of various surface ligands on the cellular uptake and biodistribution characteristics of red, green, and blue emitting Cu nanoclusters.

Surface functionalization has a prominent influence on tuning/manipulating the physicochemical properties of nanometer scaled materials. Ultrasmall sized nanoclusters with very few atoms have received enormous attention due to their bright fluorescence, biocompatibility, lower toxicity, good colloidal stability and strong photostability. These properties make them suitable for diagnostic applications. In this work, we intend to study the effect of surface functional ligands on their biodistribution both in vitro and in vivo organelle systems for bioimaging applications.

Supramolecular Toxin Complexes for Targeted Pharmacological Modulation of Polymorphonuclear Leukocyte Functions.

The targeted pharmacological modulation of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) is of major medical interest. These innate immune cells play a central role in the defense against pathogenic microorganisms. However, their excessive chemotactic recruitment into tissues after traumatic injury is detrimental due to local and systemic inflammation. Rho-GTPases, being the master regulators of the actin cytoskeleton, regulate migration and chemotaxis of PMNs, are attractive pharmacological targets. Herein, supramolecular protein complexes are assembled in a "mix-and-match" approach containing the specific Rho-inhibiting clostridial C3 enzyme and three PMN-binding peptides using an avidin platform. Selective delivery of the C3 Rho-inhibitor with these complexes into the cytosol of human neutrophil-like NB-4 cells and primary human PMNs ex vivo is demonstrated, where they catalyze the adenosine diphosphate (ADP) ribosylation of Rho and induce a characteristic change in cell morphology. Notably, the complexes do not deliver C3 enzyme into human lung epithelial cells, A549 lung cancer cells, and immortalized human alveolar epithelial cells (hAELVi), demonstrating their cell type-selectivity. The supramolecular complexes represent attractive molecular tools to decipher the role of PMNs in infection and inflammation or for the development of novel therapeutic approaches for diseases that are associated with hyperactivity and reactivity of PMNs such as post-traumatic injury.

Encoding function into polypeptide-oligonucleotide precision biopolymers.

We report a novel synthesis strategy to prepare precision polymers providing exact chain lengths, molecular weights and monomer sequences that allow post modifications by convenient DNA hybridization. Two grafted single strand DNA (ssDNA) side chains serve as a versatile platform for sequence-specific attachment of chromophores, proteins, cell-targeting peptide, and a Y-shape DNA linker. This approach resembles a LEGO®-type incorporation of functionalities to create functional biopolymers of high structure definition under mild conditions.

CDy6, a photostable probe for long-term real-time visualization of mitosis and proliferating cells.

Long-term real-time visualization of lysosomal dynamics has been challenging at the onset of mitosis due to the lack of fluorescent probes enabling convenient imaging of dividing cells. We developed a long-term real-time photostable mitotic or proliferating marker, CDy6, a BODIPY-derived compound of designation yellow 6, which labels lysosome. In long-term real-time, CDy6 displayed a sharp increase in intensity and change in localization in mitosis, improved photostability, and decreased toxicity compared with other widely used lysosomal and DNA markers, and the ability to label cells in mouse xenograft models. Therefore, CDy6 may open new possibilities to target and trace lysosomal contents during mitosis and to monitor cell proliferation, which can further our knowledge of the basic underlying biological mechanisms in the management of cancer.

In situ investigation of mammalian inorganic polyphosphate localization using novel selective fluorescent probes JC-D7 and JC-D8.

Inorganic polyphosphate (polyP) is a polymer composed of many orthophosphates linked together by phosphoanhydride bonds. Recent studies demonstrate that in addition to its important role in the function of microorganisms, polyP plays multiple important roles in the pathological and physiological function of higher eukaryotes, including mammalians. However, due to the dramatically lower abundance of polyP in mammalian cells when comparing to microorganisms, its investigation poses an experimental challenge. Here, we present the identification of novel fluorescent probes that allow for specific labeling of synthetic polyP in vitro as well as endogenous polyP in living cells. These probes demonstrate high selectivity for the labeling of polyP that was not sensitive to a number of ubiquitous organic polyphosphates, notably RNA. Use of these probes allowed us to demonstrate the real time detection of polyP release from lysosomes in live cells. Furthermore, we have been able to detect the increased levels of polyP in cells with Parkinson's disease related mutations.

Development of a fluorescent sensor for an illicit date rape drug--GBL.

The first fluorescent sensor for an illicit date rape drug, GBL, was developed and named Green Date. It shows high fluorescence enhancement to GBL and allows its detection in different drinks. The mechanism between GBL and Green Date was explored. This discovery may help to prevent the drug-facilitated sexual assault problems.

Make caffeine visible: a fluorescent caffeine "traffic light" detector.

Caffeine has attracted abundant attention due to its extensive existence in beverages and medicines. However, to detect it sensitively and conveniently remains a challenge, especially in resource-limited regions. Here we report a novel aqueous phase fluorescent caffeine sensor named Caffeine Orange which exhibits 250-fold fluorescence enhancement upon caffeine activation and high selectivity. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicate that π-stacking and hydrogen-bonding contribute to their interactions while dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy experiments demonstrate the change of Caffeine Orange ambient environment induces its fluorescence emission. To utilize this probe in real life, we developed a non-toxic caffeine detection kit and tested it for caffeine quantification in various beverages. Naked-eye sensing of various caffeine concentrations was possible based on color changes upon irradiation with a laser pointer. Lastly, we performed the whole system on a microfluidic device to make caffeine detection quick, sensitive and automated.

Antioxidant and antibacterial activities of bark extracts from Commiphora berryi and Commiphora caudata.

This study investigates the in vitro antioxidant and antimicrobial activities of eight extracts obtained from the dried barks of Commiphora berryi and Commiphora caudata (Burseraceae). The radical scavenging activity was assessed by 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl hydrazyl (DPPH) and nitric oxide assays. The methanolic extracts of C. berryi and C. caudata showed significant DPPH radical scavenging activity, with IC50 values of 26.92 and 21.16 µg mL⁻¹, respectively, and low radical scavenging activity against the nitric oxide assay. The antimicrobial activity of the plants was tested against the Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The ethyl acetate, chloroform and petroleum ether extracts of C. berryi showed good antibacterial activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, with a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 0.26 mg mL⁻¹, whereas the ethyl acetate and methanol extracts of C. caudata showed moderate antimicrobial activity with an MIC of more than 2.0 mg mL⁻¹ against P. aeruginosa compared to the petroleum ether and chloroform extracts, which showed an MIC of 1.1 mg mL⁻¹. The methanolic extracts of C. berryi and C. caudata also showed moderate cytotoxic activity against a human mammary carcinoma cell line (MCF-7), with values IC50 of 82.6 and 88.4 µg mL⁻¹, respectively.