Cyclic Formula Feeding Among Infants Participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children.

BACKGROUND: Low-income households often experience a cyclic pattern in food availability, with acute food shortages at month end. Variations in the monthly feeding of infant formula are understudied. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to compare the amount and frequency of formula consumed at the beginning and end of the monthly Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) assistance cycle and test associations with total energy intake and other feeding practices among infants aged 7-11 mo. METHODS: This study was conducted between May 2020 and April 2021 in the southeastern United States and involved mothers of infants participating in WIC's fully formula package. Mothers were interviewed and 24-h feeding recalls were conducted at the beginning and end of the month. We defined month beginning as 5 d following the first WIC formula purchase and month end as 5 d before the next monthly cycle. Fifty mother-infant dyads participated in single or multiple monthly cycles, totaling 98 monthly cycles. Generalized linear mixed-effects modeling was used to test differences in formula feeding at month beginning and end. RESULTS: Most participants (84%) were African American or Latino and >90% purchased all formula within 2-3 d of the WIC issuance. The energy intake from formula at month beginning was significantly higher than at month end (67.63% and 57.85%, respectively; P = 0.002), with no differences in total energy intake. The odds of infants being fed cow milk and fruit juices/drinks increased from month beginning to end (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Infants in low-income households are at risk of experiencing a cyclic feeding pattern characterized by higher formula feeding at month beginning and an increase in feeding of nonrecommended drinks at month end. The WIC program policy could review educational and distribution options to reduce cyclic formula feeding and clarify caregivers' understanding of infants' formula needs. Household-level investigations into formula management and determinants of cyclic feeding are warranted.

Ultraprocessed Food Intake during the Transition to Adulthood Varies According to Sociodemographic Characteristics and Maternal Intake in Cebu, Philippines.

BACKGROUND: Ultraprocessed foods (UPFs) are associated with elevated risk of noncommunicable disease, but little is known about UPF intake and the individual-, household-, and community-level factors associated with it among adolescents in low- or middle-income countries. OBJECTIVES: We estimated the association of UPF intake across adolescence with sociodemographic characteristics and maternal UPF intake in a Filipino cohort. METHODS: Data were from 4 waves (1994-2005) of the Cebu Longitudinal Health and Nutrition Survey (n = 2068); participants were aged 11, 15, 18, and 21 y. Foods from 24-h recalls were classified using NOVA. We used two-part multilevel models to estimate time-varying associations of the odds and amount (percentage daily kilocalories) of UPF intake with sociodemographic characteristics and maternal UPF intake (none, below median among UPF-consuming mothers ["low"], at or above median ["high"]). RESULTS: Median UPF intake (interquartile range [IQR]) among adolescents was 7.3% (IQR: 0, 17.2%) of daily kilocalories at age 11 y and 10.6% (IQR: 3.6, 19.6%) at 21 y. The odds and amount of adolescent UPF intake were positively associated with female sex, years of schooling, and household wealth and inversely associated with household size. The odds-but not amount-of adolescent UPF intake was positively associated with maternal education and urbanicity and inversely associated with the distance from a household's primary store/market. The association between odds of adolescent UPF intake and school enrollment was positive in adolescence but disappeared in early adulthood. Compared with offspring whose mothers did not consume UPFs, the odds of UPF intake among those whose mothers had low or high UPF intake was greater in adolescence, but there was no association once offspring became adults. At all ages, maternal UPF intake was positively associated with the amount of offspring intake. CONCLUSIONS: Adolescent UPF intake varied across sociodemographic characteristics and was positively associated with maternal UPF intake, but not after adolescents entered adulthood.

Who chooses "healthy" meals? An analysis of lunchtime meal quality in a workplace cafeteria.

BACKGROUND: The workplace can play an important role in shaping the eating behaviors of U.S. adults. Unfortunately, foods obtained in the workplace tend to be low in nutritional quality. Questions remain about the best way to approach the promotion of healthy food purchases among employees and to what extent health promotion activities should be tailored to the demographic characteristics of the employees. The purpose of this study was to (1) assess the nutritional quality of lunchtime meal purchases by employees in cafeterias of a large organization, (2) examine associations between lunchtime meal quality selection and the demographic characteristics of employees, and (3) determine the healthfulness of foods and beverages offered in the cafeterias of this organization. METHODS: A cross-sectional analysis was conducted using secondary data from a food labeling study implemented in three worksite cafeterias. Demographic data was collected via surveys and meal data was collected using a photo capture system for 378 participants. The Healthy Eating Index 2015 (HEI-2015) was used to determine meal quality and a total score for the menu of options available in the cafeterias during the study period. Summary statistics were generated, and the analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the HEI-2015 scores between groups. RESULTS: The mean HEI-2015 total score for the menu items offered (n = 1,229) in the cafeteria during the study period was 63.1 (SD = 1.83). The mean HEI-2015 score for individual lunchtime meal observations (n = 378) was 47.1 (SD = 6.8). In general, HEI-2015 total scores were higher for non-smokers, individuals who self-identified as Asian, had higher physical activity levels, scored higher on numeracy and literacy assessments, and reported higher education levels, incomes, and health status. CONCLUSIONS: The overall HEI-2015 scores indicate that the menu of options offered in the cafeterias and individual meal selections did not align with the Dietary Guidelines for Americans, and there were significant associations between average lunchtime meal quality scores and several demographic characteristics. These results suggest that healthy eating promotion activities in workplaces may need to be tailored to the demographic characteristics of the employees, and efforts to improve the food environment in the workplace could improve meal quality for all employees.

Awareness, experiences, and beliefs related to ultra-processed foods among young people in Cebu, Philippines.

Ultra-processed food (UPF) intake is rising in low- and middle-income countries, where non-communicable diseases are now the leading contributor to disease burden. The purpose of this study was to assess awareness and knowledge of UPFs, factors that influence consumption of UPFs, and beliefs about the relationship between UPF intake and health among young people (18-20 years old) in a metropolitan area of the Philippines, a lower middle-income country. We conducted eight focus group discussions across four strata defined by gender and urban-rural neighborhood designation. We applied deductive and inductive codes to transcripts and organized codes into themes. Sixty participants were included in the study. Although most were unfamiliar with the concept of UPFs, participants demonstrated an intuitive understanding of the meaning of the term. Vendors in or around schools were commonly reported as a source of UPFs, though most participants reported consuming UPFs at home as well. Factors that were reported as having influence over participants' UPF intake included taste, convenience, cost, influence from parents, peers, and others, and health knowledge and status. Participants expressed various beliefs about the link between overconsumption of UPFs and risk of multiple health outcomes, including diabetes, hypertension, and kidney disease. Some males, but not females, believed that some UPFs were neutral or beneficial with respect to health. Commonly cited sources of information about UPFs and their link to health included parents, schools, and social media. This study provides important insights into the factors that drive UPF consumption among young people in a lower middle-income country and should inform efforts to reduce UPF intake among young people in this and similar settings.

Culinary Medicine Experiences for Medical Students and Residents in the U.S. and Canada: A Scoping Review.

PHENOMENON: Despite the importance of diet in the prevention and management of many common chronic diseases, nutrition training in medicine is largely inadequate in medical school and residency. The emerging field of culinary medicine offers an experiential nutrition learning approach with the potential to address the need for improved nutrition training of physicians. Exploring this innovative nutrition training strategy, this scoping review describes the nature of culinary medicine experiences for medical students and resident physicians, their impact on the medical trainees, and barriers and facilitators to their implementation. APPROACH: This scoping review used the Joanna Briggs Institute methodology for scoping reviews and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) checklist as guides. Eligible publications described the nature, impact, facilitators, and/or barriers of nutrition and food preparation learning experiences for medical students and/or residents. Additional inclusion criteria were location (U.S. or Canada), allopathic or osteopathic, English, human subjects, and publication year (2002 or later). The search strategy included 4 electronic databases. Two reviewers independently screened titles/abstracts and a third reviewer resolved discrepancies. The full-text review consisted of 2 independent reviews with discrepancies resolved by a third reviewer or by consensus if needed, and the research team extracted data from the included articles based on the nature, impact, barriers, and facilitators of culinary medicine experiences for medical trainees. FINDINGS: The publication search resulted in 100 publications describing 116 experiences from 70 institutions. Thirty-seven publications described pilot experiences. Elective/extracurricular and medical student experiences were more common than required and resident experiences, respectively. Experiences varied in logistics, instruction, and curricula. Common themes of tailored culinary medicine experiences included community engagement/service-based learning, interprofessional education, attention to social determinants of health, trainee well-being, and cultural considerations. Program evaluations commonly reported the outcome of experiences on participant attitudes, knowledge, skills, confidence, and behaviors. Frequent barriers to implementation included time, faculty, cost/funding, kitchen space, and institutional support while common facilitators of experiences included funding/donations, collaboratives and partnerships, teaching kitchen access, faculty and institutional support, and trainee advocacy. INSIGHTS: Culinary medicine is an innovative approach to address the need and increased demand for improved nutrition training in medicine. The findings from this review can guide medical education stakeholders interested in developing or modifying culinary medicine experiences. Despite barriers to implementation, culinary medicine experiences can be offered in a variety of ways during undergraduate and graduate medical education and can be creatively designed to fulfill some accreditation standards.

Assessing the acceptability of a culturally adapted group-based pediatric intervention, Kokajjiriri, for Marshallese mothers and infants to improve nutrition and prevent childhood obesity.

BACKGROUND: Marshallese Pacific Islanders experience higher rates of obesity than other racial and/or ethnic communities. Despite the obesity rates experienced in this community, there are currently no childhood obesity prevention interventions designed for Marshallese Pacific Islanders in the United States. The purpose of this study is to assess the acceptability and feasibility of a culturally adapted group-based pediatric intervention, Kokajjiriri, with Marshallese mothers to improve nutrition and reduce childhood obesity. METHODS: A multi-methods design was used to culturally adapt the Kokajjiriri intervention for Marshallese mothers in Arkansas (n = 17). In phase one, we conducted 24-h dietary recalls with 20 Marshallese mothers to inform the cultural adaptation of the group-based pediatric intervention, and then in phase two, we culturally adapted and piloted three sessions of the intervention to determine the acceptability and feasibility of the intervention. RESULTS: Participants found the adapted intervention to be acceptable and feasible, found the location to be convenient and found the facilitator to be knowledgeable. Four themes emerged from the qualitative data: (1) Lactation Support; (2) Introducing Healthy Solids; (3) Rice Portion Control; and (4) Finding Resources. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first study to assess the acceptability and feasibility of a culturally adapted group-based pediatric intervention, Kokajjiriri, with Marshallese mothers to improve nutrition and reduce childhood obesity. The results from this culturally adapted group-based pediatric intervention, Kokajjiriri, will be used to inform future adaptations and implementation of the full intervention for Marshallese women and children.

An Exploratory Study of the Perceived Need for and Acceptability of a Healthy Frozen Meal Product Among Rural Corner Store Customers in North Carolina.

This pilot study assesses barriers to obtaining healthy affordable food and the early-stage acceptability of a novel subsidized healthy frozen meal product designed to address food insecurity and nutritional status among corner store customers in rural North Carolina. A convenience sample of 50 customers were surveyed to examine the perceived availability of healthy food options, barriers to maintaining healthy diets, food shopping and consumption habits, and reception of the product. Findings confirmed barriers to obtaining healthy foods that the product seeks to address, the validity of corner stores as the intervention site, and approval of the product's taste and concept.

Cost analysis and cost effectiveness of a subsidized community supported agriculture intervention for low-income families.

BACKGROUND: The food system has a dynamic influence on disparities in food security and diet-related chronic disease. Community supported agriculture (CSA) programs, in which households receive weekly shares of produce from a local farmer during the growing season, have been examined as a possible food systems-based approach for improving diet and health outcomes. The purpose of this study was to estimate the cost of implementing and participating in a multi-component subsidized community supported agriculture intervention and calculate cost-effectiveness based on diet and food security impacts. METHODS: Using data from the Farm Fresh Foods for Healthy Kids (F3HK) randomized controlled trial in New York, North Carolina, Vermont, and Washington (n = 305; 2016-2018), we estimated programmatic and participant costs and calculated incremental cost-effectiveness ratios (ICERs) for caregivers' daily fruit and vegetable (FV) intake, skin carotenoids, and household food security from program and societal perspectives. RESULTS: F3HK cost $2,439 per household annually ($1,884 in implementation-related expenses and $555 in participant-incurred costs). ICERs ranged from $1,507 to $2,439 per cup increase in caregiver's FV intake (depending on perspective, setting, and inclusion of juice); from $502 to $739 per one thousand unit increase in skin carotenoid score; and from $2,271 to $3,137 per household shifted out of food insecurity. CONCLUSIONS: Given the known public health, healthcare, and economic consequences of insufficient FV intake and living in a food insecure household, the costs incurred to support these positive shifts in individual- and household-level outcomes via a F3HK-like intervention may be deemed by stakeholders as a reasonable investment. This work helps to advance a critical body of literature on the cost-effectiveness of subsidized CSAs and other economic and food system interventions for the sake of evidence-based allocation of public health resources. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov. NCT02770196. Registered 5 April 2016. Retrospectively registered. https://www. CLINICALTRIALS: gov/ct2/show/NCT02770196 .

State expansion of supplemental nutrition assistance program eligibility and rates of interpersonal violence.

INTRODUCTION: Food insecurity is associated with an increased likelihood of interpersonal violence. The Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) is the largest program addressing food insecurity in the U.S. States can eliminate the asset test and/or increase the income limit for SNAP eligibility, expanding the number of households receiving assistance. We examined the association of state elimination of the asset test and increases in the income limit with rates of interpersonal violence, including intimate partner violence (IPV), other relationship violence (violence by a parent, friend, etc.), and stranger violence. METHODS: We used data from the SNAP Policy Database and state-level estimates of rates of interpersonal violence per 1000 population ages ≥12 years from the 2012-2014 to 2016-2018 National Crime Victimization Survey. RESULTS: States that adopted both SNAP eligibility policies (eliminated the asset test and increased the income limit) had a lower rate of IPV (ß = -0.4, 95% CI -0.9, 0.0) and other relationship violence (ß = -2.4, 95% CI -3.8, -1.1) compared to states that did not adopt either policy. The rate of stranger violence (ß = -0.5, 95% CI -2.3, 1.4) did not differ for states that adopted both policies compared to states that did not adopt either policy. Rates of IPV (ß = -0.4, 95% CI -0.9, 0.2), other relationship violence (ß = -1.2, 95% CI -3.2, 0.7), and stranger violence (ß = -0.2, 95% CI -2.0, 1.6) did not differ for states that eliminated the asset test only compared to states that did not adopt either policy. CONCLUSION: Expanding SNAP eligibility may help prevent interpersonal violence at the population-level.

Food Vendors and the Obesogenic Food Environment of an Informal Settlement in Nairobi, Kenya: a Descriptive and Spatial Analysis.

Food environments of urban informal settlements are likely drivers of dietary intake among residents of such settlements. Yet, few attempts have been made to describe them. The objective of this study was to characterize the food environment of a densely-populated informal settlement in Nairobi, Kenya according to the obesogenic properties and spatial distribution of its food vendors. In July-August 2019, we identified food vendors in the settlement and classified them into obesogenic risk categories based on the types of food that they sold. We calculated descriptive statistics and assessed clustering according to obesogenic risk using Ripley's K function. Foods most commonly sold among the 456 vendors in the analytic sample were sweets/confectionary (29% of vendors), raw vegetables (28%), fried starches (23%), and fruits (21%). Forty-four percent of vendors were classified as low-risk, protective; 34% as high-risk, non-protective; 16% as low-risk, non-protective; and 6% as high-risk, protective. The mean distance (95% confidence interval) to the nearest vendor of the same obesogenic risk category was 26 m (21, 31) for vendors in the low-risk, protective group; 29 m (25, 33) in the high-risk, non-protective group; 114 m (88, 139) in the high-risk, protective group; and 43 m (30, 56) in the low-risk, non-protective group. Clustering was significant for all obesogenic risk groups except for the high-risk, protective. Our findings indicate a duality of obesogenic and anti-obesogenic foods in this environment. Clustering of obesogenic foods highlights the need for local officials to take action to increase access to health-promoting foods throughout informal settlements.

Associations between early introduction to complementary foods, subsequent cereal-added bottle feeding and daily macronutrient intake among infants.

Introducing complementary foods early during infancy has been associated with an increased risk of overweight later in life, but the pathway is an understudied topic. Hence the study was conducted with low-income and primarily minority mother-infant dyads to: 1) understand how the introduction of complementary foods prior to 4 months was associated with socio-demographic characteristics and food security status; 2) determine the association between early introduction to complementary foods and breastfeeding and adding cereal into the bottle in later infancy (i.e., at 6 and 9 months), and; 3) examine how adding infant cereal into the bottle was related to daily calorie and macronutrient intake in infancy. We conducted interviews with mothers (n = 201) at 4 months of age and 24-h feeding recalls at age 6 and 9 months. Results indicated that 29% of the infants were fed complementary foods before 4 months of age. Introducing complementary foods early was negatively associated with breastfeeding and positively associated with adding cereal into the bottle at 6-months. This practice was more common among those who experienced marginal to very low levels of food security. Comparing by race/ethnicity, Latinx mothers were significantly less likely to introduce solids early. After controlling for sex, infants fed cereal in the bottle were consuming significantly more calories compared to their counterparts. Specifically, adding cereal into the bottle resulted in approximately 10% additional daily calorie intake among infants. Understanding how these feeding practices affect appetite development and weight status during infancy is warranted.

Eating disorders and disordered eating in servicemen and women: A narrative review.

OBJECTIVE: Eating disorders (EDs) are mental illnesses impacting all aspects of an individual's life. Recent research has examined EDs and disordered-eating behaviors in the military, a population subject to body composition standards, fitness requirements, and extreme stress. The purpose of this narrative review was to investigate ED and disordered-eating prevalence and their risk factors in ROTC (reserve officers' training corps), active-duty, and veteran servicemembers. The secondary purpose was to provide policy recommendations to reduce the burden of these conditions in the military. METHODS: PubMed and PsycINFO were reviewed for relevant articles. All studies including data on EDs or disordered eating in U.S. active-duty, ROTC, or veteran populations were considered. RESULTS: Results revealed a high burden of EDs and disordered eating with bulimic- and binge-type behaviors being the most common. Servicemembers exposed to trauma, including military sexual assault, and those with comorbidities like PTSD showed a higher prevalence. Body composition and fitness testing were also associated with a higher risk. Qualitative studies suggest these conditions serve as coping mechanisms for aspects of military life. CONCLUSIONS: The high prevalence of EDs and disordered eating in the military points toward the importance of identification, treatment, and prevention. Policy change is necessary to protect servicemembers.

Participation in Cost-offset Community Supported Agriculture by Low-income Households in the U.S. is Associated with Community Characteristics and Operational Practices.

OBJECTIVE: Subsidized or cost-offset community supported agriculture (CO-CSA) connects farms directly to low-income households and can improve fruit and vegetable intake. This analysis identifies factors associated with participation in CO-CSA. DESIGN: Farm Fresh Foods for Healthy Kids (F3HK) provided a half-price, summer CO-CSA plus healthy eating classes to low-income households with children. Community characteristics (population, socio-demographics, health statistics) and CO-CSA operational practices (share sizes, pick-up sites, payment options, produce selection) are described and associations with participation levels examined. SETTING: Ten communities in New York (NY), North Carolina (NC), Vermont, and Washington states in USA. PARTICIPANTS: Caregiver-child dyads enrolled in spring 2016 or 2017. RESULTS: Residents of micropolitan communities had more education and less poverty than in small towns. The one rural location (NC2) had the fewest college graduates (10%) and most poverty (23%), and poor health statistics. Most F3HK participants were white, except in NC where 45.2% were African American. CO-CSA participation varied significantly across communities from 33% (NC2) to 89% (NY1) of weeks picked-up. Most CO-CSAs offered multiple share sizes (69.2%) and participation was higher than when not offered (76.8% vs. 57.7% of weeks); whereas 53.8% offered a community pick-up location, and participation in these communities was lower than elsewhere (64.7% vs. 78.2% of weeks). CONCLUSION: CO-CSAs should consider offering choice of share size and innovate to address potential barriers such as rural location and limited education and income among residents. Future research is needed to better understand barriers to participation, particularly among participants utilizing community pick-up locations.

Operational challenges that may affect implementation of evidence-based mobile market interventions.

INTRODUCTION: Mobile produce markets are becoming an increasingly prevalent, accepted, and effective strategy for improving fruit and vegetable (F&V) access and consumption across underserved and lower-income communities. However, there is limited published research on mobile market operations. The goal of this research is to identify the challenges mobile markets face and ways to potentially mitigate those challenges. We will also discuss implications of our findings for future implementation of evidence-based food access interventions. METHODS: We conducted 21 semi-structured key informant (KI) interviews to assess common practices of mobile market organizations that had been operating for 2 + years. We asked KIs about their organizational structure, operations, procurement and logistics, evaluation efforts, marketing and community engagement, success and challenges. A primary qualitative analysis involved deductive coding using qualitative software. A secondary qualitative analysis identified subthemes related to common challenges and remedial practices. A deductive coding process was applied to match identified challenges to the appropriate Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR). RESULTS: The leading challenges cited by KIs correspond to the CFIR domains of inner setting (e.g., funding and resources), outer setting (e.g., navigating regulations), and process (e.g., engaging community partnership). Practices that may mitigate challenges include maximizing ancillary services, adopting innovative volunteer and staffing structures, and formalizing agreements with community partners. CONCLUSION: Common and persistent challenges ought to be addressed to ensure and enhance the positive public health impacts of mobile produce markets. Contextual factors, particularly organizational factors, that impact implementation should also be considered when implementing an evidence-based intervention at a mobile market. Further research is needed to determine which innovative solutions are the most effective in mitigating challenges, improving implementation, and enhancing sustainability of mobile markets.

Examining Changes in Food Security, Perceived Stress, and Dietary Intake in a Cohort of Low-Wage Workers Experiencing an Increase in Hourly Wage.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether an increase in hourly wages was associated with changes in food security and perceived stress among low-wage workers. We also determined whether changes in food security and stress were associated with changes in diet. SETTING: Wages is a prospective cohort study following 974 low-wage workers in Minneapolis, MN, where an ordinance is incrementally increasing minimum wage to US$15/hr from 2018 to 2022, and a comparison community with no minimum wage ordinance (Raleigh, NC). Interaction models were estimated using generalized estimating equations. PARTICIPANTS: Analyses used two waves of data (2018 [baseline], 2019) and included 219 and 321 low-wage workers in Minneapolis and Raleigh (respectively). RESULTS: Average hourly wages increased from US$9.77 (SD US$1.69) to US$11.67 (SD US$4.02). Changes in wages were not associated with changes in food security (odds ratio = 1.05, 95% confidence interval [CI] [0.89, 1.23], p = .57) or stress (ß = -0.01, 95% CI [-0.04, 0.03], p = .70) after 1 year of policy implementation. Changes in food security were not associated with changes in diet. However, we found significant changes in the frequency of fruit and vegetable intake across time by levels of stress, with decreased intake from Wave 1 to 2 at low levels of stress, and increased intake at high levels of stress (incidence rate ratio = 1.17, 95% CI [1.05, 1.31], p = .01). CONCLUSIONS: Changes in wages were not associated with changes in food security or stress in a sample of low-wage workers. Future research should examine whether full implementation of a minimum wage increase is associated with changes in these outcomes.

College student motivations for and perceived impacts of volunteering with a nutrition and cooking education program for children.

To assess among college students their motivations for and perceived impacts of volunteering with Cooking Matters for Kids as part of No Kid Hungry NC. Seventeen college student volunteers responded to an online survey questionnaire assessing their motivations for volunteering and how they were impacted by their experiences. Motivational functions for volunteering (values, understanding, social, career, protective, enhancement) were assessed using the Volunteer Functions Inventory. The strongest motivational functions for volunteering were values and understanding. Students were also strongly motivated to volunteer related to the areas specifically addressed by the program (i.e., nutrition, public health, working with children). Perceived impacts of volunteering included being more comfortable working with children, improving knowledge/skills, gaining experience related to their future career, and having fun. Volunteering with Cooking Matters for Kids benefited college students. Issues addressed by the program and the desire to gain experience motivated students to volunteer.

Community supported agriculture plus nutrition education improves skills, self-efficacy, and eating behaviors among low-income caregivers but not their children: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: Adults and children in the U.S. consume inadequate quantities of fruit and vegetables (FV), in part, due to poor access among households with lower socioeconomic status. One approach to improving access to FV is community supported agriculture (CSA) in which households purchase a 'share' of local farm produce throughout the growing season. This study examined the effects of cost-offset (half-price) CSA plus tailored nutrition education for low-income households with children. METHODS: The Farm Fresh Foods for Healthy Kids (F3HK) randomized controlled trial in New York, North Carolina, Vermont, and Washington (2016-2018) assigned caregiver-child dyads (n = 305) into cost-offset CSA plus education intervention or control (delayed intervention) groups. Following one growing season of CSA participation, changes in children's diet quality, body mass index (BMI), and physical activity; caregivers' nutrition knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and diet quality; and household food access and security were examined using multiple linear or logistic regression, with adjustment for baseline value within an intent-to-treat (ITT) framework in which missing data were multiply imputed. RESULTS: No significant net effects on children's dietary intake, BMI, or physical activity were observed. Statistically significant net improvements were observed after one growing season for caregivers' cooking attitudes, skills, and self-efficacy; FV intake and skin carotenoid levels; and household food security. Changes in attitudes and self-efficacy remained one-year after baseline, but improvements in caregiver diet and household food security did not. The number of weeks that participants picked up a CSA share (but not number of education sessions attended) was associated with improvements in caregiver FV intake and household food security. CONCLUSIONS: Cost-offset CSA plus tailored nutrition education for low-income households improved important caregiver and household outcomes within just one season of participation; most notably, both self-reported and objectively measured caregiver FV intake and household food security improved. Households that picked up more shares also reported larger improvements. However, these changes were not maintained after the CSA season ended. These results suggest that cost-offset CSA is a viable approach to improving adult, but not child, FV intake and household food security for low-income families, but the seasonality of most CSAs may limit their potential to improve year-round dietary behavior and food security. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov . NCT02770196 . Registered 5 April 2016. Retrospectively registered.

A four-year observational study to examine the dietary impact of the North Carolina Healthy Food Small Retailer Program, 2017-2020.

BACKGROUND: The North Carolina (NC) Healthy Food Small Retailer Program (HFSRP) was passed into law with a $250,000 appropriation (2016-2018) providing up to $25,000 in funding to small food stores for equipment to stock healthier foods and beverages. This paper describes an observational natural experiment documenting the impact of the HFSRP on store food environments, customers' purchases and diets. METHODS: Using store observations and intercept surveys from cross-sectional, convenience customer samples (1261 customers in 22 stores, 2017-2020; 499 customers in 7 HFSRP stores, and 762 customers in 15 Comparison stores), we examined differences between HFSRP and comparison stores regarding: (1) change in store-level availability, quality, and price of healthy foods/beverages; (2) change in healthfulness of observed food and beverage purchases ("bag checks"); and, (3) change in self-reported and objectively-measured (Veggie Meter®-assessed skin carotenoids) customer dietary behaviors. Differences (HFSRP vs. comparison stores) in store-level Healthy Food Supply (HFS) and Healthy Eating Index-2010 scores were assessed using repeated measure ANOVA. Intervention effects on diet were assessed using difference-in-difference models including propensity scores. RESULTS: There were improvements in store-level supply of healthier foods/beverages within 1 year of program implementation (0 vs. 1-12 month HFS scores; p = 0.055) among HFSRP stores only. Comparing 2019 to 2017 (baseline), HFSRP stores' HFS increased, but decreased in comparison stores (p = 0.031). Findings indicated a borderline significant effect of the intervention on self-reported fruit and vegetable intake (servings/day), though in the opposite direction expected, such that fruit and vegetable intake increased more among comparison store than HFSRP store customers (p = 0.05). There was no significant change in Veggie Meter®-assessed fruit and vegetable intake by customers shopping at the intervention versus comparison stores. CONCLUSIONS: Despite improvement in healthy food availability, there was a lack of apparent impact on dietary behaviors related to the HFSRP, which could be due to intervention dose or inadequate statistical power due to the serial cross-sectional study design. It may also be that individuals buy most of their food at larger stores; thus, small store interventions may have limited impact on overall eating patterns. Future healthy retail policies should consider how to increase intervention dose to include more product marketing, consumer messaging, and technical assistance for store owners.

Association between hourly wages and dietary intake after the first phase of implementation of the Minneapolis minimum wage ordinance.

OBJECTIVE: In 2018, Minneapolis began phased implementation of an ordinance to increase the local minimum wage to $15/h. We sought to determine whether the first phase of implementation was associated with changes in frequency of consumption of fruits and vegetables (F&V), whole-grain-rich foods, and foods high in added sugars among low-wage workers. DESIGN: Natural experiment. SETTING: The Wages Study is a prospective cohort study of 974 low-wage workers followed throughout the phased implementation of the ordinance (2018-2022). We used difference-in-difference analysis to compare outcomes among workers in Minneapolis, Minnesota, to those in a comparison city (Raleigh, North Carolina). We assessed wages using participants' pay stubs and dietary intake using the National Cancer Institute Dietary Screener Questionnaire. PARTICIPANTS: Analyses use the first two waves of Wages data (2018 (baseline), 2019) and includes 267 and 336 low-wage workers in Minneapolis and Raleigh, respectively. RESULTS: After the first phase of implementation, wages increased in both cities, but the increase was $0·84 greater in Minneapolis (P = 0·02). However, the first phase of the policy's implementation was not associated with changes in daily frequency of consumption of F&V (IRR = 1·03, 95 % CI: 0·86, 1·24, P = 0·73), whole-grain-rich foods (IRR = 1·23, 95 % CI: 0·89, 1·70, P = 0·20), or foods high in added sugars (IRR = 1·13, 95 % CI: 0·86, 1·47, P = 0·38) among workers in Minneapolis compared to Raleigh. CONCLUSIONS: The first phase of implementation of the Minneapolis minimum wage policy was associated with increased wages, but not with changes in dietary intake. Future research should examine whether full implementation is associated dietary changes.

Perceptions of nutrition education classes offered in conjunction with a community-supported agriculture intervention among low-income families.

OBJECTIVE: To examine participants' experiences with nutrition education classes that were implemented with and designed to complement a cost-offset community-supported agriculture (CSA) programme. DESIGN: Qualitative analysis of data from twenty-eight focus groups with ninety-six participants enrolled in Farm Fresh Foods for Healthy Kids (F3HK). Transcribed data were coded and analysed by a priori and emergent themes. SETTING: Rural and micropolitan communities in New York, North Carolina, Vermont and Washington (USA). PARTICIPANTS: Ninety-six F3HK participants. RESULTS: Participants found recipes and class activities helpful and reported improvements in nutrition knowledge, food preservation skills and home cooking behaviours for themselves and their children; they also reported that classes promoted a sense of community. Some educators better incorporated CSA produce into lessons, which participants reported as beneficial. Other obligations and class logistics were barriers to attendance; participants recommended that lessons be offered multiple times weekly at different times of day. Other suggestions included lengthening class duration to encourage social engagement; emphasising recipes to incorporate that week's CSA produce and pantry staples and offering additional strategies to incorporate children in classes. CONCLUSION: Complementing a cost-offset CSA with nutrition education may enhance programme benefits to low-income families by improving nutrition knowledge and cooking behaviours. However, future interventions will benefit from ongoing coordination between educators and local growing trajectories to maximise timely coverage of unfamiliar produce in lessons; synchronous scheduling of CSA pick-up and classes for participant convenience and creative strategies to engage children and/or provide childcare.