A Gravid Situation: General Surgery Faculty Support for Pregnant Surgical Residents.

INTRODUCTION: The perceptions of teaching faculty toward pregnant general surgery residents have been overlooked despite the daily interactions amongst these groups. METHODS: A 32-question survey designed to measure general surgery teaching faculty perceptions toward pregnant residents was distributed electronically from March 2022 to April 2022 to general surgery teaching faculty in the United States. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize responses and differences in perceptions, and qualitative analysis identified recurring themes from free-text responses. RESULTS: Among 163 respondents included in the final analysis, 58.5% were male and 41.5% were female. Despite 99.4% of surgeons feeling comfortable if a resident told them they were pregnant, 22.4% of surgeons disagreed that their institutions have supportive cultures toward pregnancy. Almost half (45.4%) have witnessed negative comments about pregnant residents and half (50.3%) believe that pregnant surgical residents are discriminated against by their coresidents. Nearly two-thirds of surgeons (64.8%) believe that someone should have a child whenever they wish during training. Given recent reports, 80.2% of surgeons recognized that female surgeons have increased risks of infertility and pregnancy complications. Recurring themes of normalizing pregnancy, improving policies, and creating a culture change were expressed. CONCLUSIONS: In this national survey, although there appears to be positive perceptions of pregnancy in surgical training amongst those surveyed, there is acknowledged necessity of further normalizing pregnancy and improving policies to better support pregnant residents. These data provide further evidence that though perceptions may be improving, changes are still needed to better support pregnancy during training.

General Surgery Faculty Knowledge and Perceptions of Breast Pumping Amongst Postpartum Surgical Residents.

BACKGROUND: There is a lack of data regarding the knowledge and perceptions teaching faculty possess about breast pumping among general surgery residents despite breast pumping becoming more common during training. This study aimed to examine faculty knowledge and perceptions of breast pumping amongst general surgery residents. METHODS: A 29-question survey measuring knowledge and perceptions about breast pumping was administered online to United States teaching faculty from March-April 2022. Descriptive statistics were used to characterize responses, Fisher's exact test was used to report differences in responses by surgeon sex and age, and qualitative analysis identified recurrent themes. RESULTS: 156 responses were analyzed; 58.6% were male and 41.4% were female, and the majority (63.5%) were less than 50 years old. Nearly all (97.7%) women with children breast pumped, while 75.3% of men with children had partners who pumped. Men more often than women indicated "I don't know" when asked about frequency (24.7 vs. 7.9%, p = 0.041) and duration (25.0 vs. 9.5%, p = 0.007) of pumping. Nearly all surgeons are comfortable (97.4%) discussing lactation needs and support (98.1%) breast pumping, yet only two-thirds feel their institutions are supportive. Almost half (41.0%) of surgeons agreed that breast pumping does not impact operating room workflow. Recurring themes included normalizing breast pumping, creating change to better support residents, and communicating needs between all parties. CONCLUSIONS: Teaching faculty may have supportive perceptions about breast pumping, but knowledge gaps may hinder greater levels of support. Opportunities exist for increased faculty education, communication, and policies to better support breast pumping residents.

Catheter-based endovascular damage-control (CDET): current status and future directions.

INTRODUCTION: Endovascular technology during the past decade has introduced innovative strategies to manage vascular trauma. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the current use catheter-based endovascular damage-control techniques (CDET) in North, Central, and South America. METHODS: A survey was sent to the presidents of local societies in Latin America, members of the board, and past presidents of the Pan-American Trauma Society. The survey was sent using the Research Electronic Data Capture collection tool. RESULTS: A total of 67 surveys were sent with an 85 % response rate. Surgeons from 15 countries participated in the survey. All of the centers in North America had capabilities to perform these procedures. In none of these centers, however, were they performed by trauma and acute care surgeons. In Central and South America, 64 % of the surgeons responded that they have an interventional radiology service, and in 56 % of the cases, trauma and acute care surgeons were already performing CDET. Eight-eight percent of those surveyed thought that the addition of CDET to trauma would improve patient care; 86 % would be interested in further training in this technique if such programs were available. Finally, 68 % thought that the addition of CDET would help the field of acute care surgery and trauma financially. CONCLUSIONS: CDET is being performed already by trauma and acute care surgeons in Latin American countries. More research is necessary to evaluate the role of the trauma surgeon in the endovascular suite as well as training requirements.

Use of limited transthoracic echocardiography in patients with traumatic cardiac arrest decreases the rate of nontherapeutic thoracotomy and hospital costs.

OBJECTIVES: Limited transthoracic echocardiography (LTTE) has been introduced as a hemodynamic tool for trauma patients. The aim of this study was to evaluate the utility of LTTE during the evaluation of nonsurviving patients who presented to the trauma bay with traumatic cardiac arrest. METHODS: Approval by the Institutional Review Board was obtained. All nonsurviving patients with traumatic cardiac arrest who reached the trauma bay were evaluated retrospectively for 1 year. Comparisons between groups of patients in whom LTTE was performed as part of the resuscitation effort and those in whom it was not performed were conducted. RESULTS: From January 2012 to January 2013, 37 patients did not survive traumatic cardiac arrest while in the trauma bay: 14 in the LTTE group and 23 in the non-LTTE group. When comparing the LTTE and non-LTTE groups, both were similar in sex distribution (LTTE, 86% male; non-LTTE, 74% male; P = .68), age (34.8 versus 24.1 years; P= .55), Injury Severity Score (41.0 versus 38.2; P= .48), and percentage of penetrating trauma (21.6% versus 21.7%; P = .29). Compared with the non-LTTE group, the LTTE group spent significantly less time in the trauma bay (13.7 versus 37.9 minutes; P = .01), received fewer blood products (7.1% versus 31.2%; P = .789), and were less likely to undergo nontherapeutic thoracotomy in the emergency department (7.14% versus 39.1%; P < .05). The non-LTTE group had a mean of $3040.50 in hospital costs, compared with the mean for the LTTE group of $1871.60 (P = .0054). CONCLUSIONS: In this study, image-guided resuscitation with LTTE decreased the time in the trauma bay and avoided nontherapeutic thoracotomy in nonsurviving trauma patients. Limited TTE could improve the use of health care resources in patients with traumatic cardiac arrest.

Reciprocal expression and signaling of TLR4 and TLR9 in the pathogenesis and treatment of necrotizing enterocolitis.

Necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) is a common and often fatal inflammatory disorder affecting preterm infants that develops upon interaction of indigenous bacteria with the premature intestine. We now demonstrate that the developing mouse intestine shows reciprocal patterns of expression of TLR4 and TLR9, the receptor for bacterial DNA (CpG-DNA). Using a novel ultrasound-guided in utero injection system, we administered LPS directly into the stomachs of early and late gestation fetuses to induce TLR4 signaling and demonstrated that TLR4-mediated signaling within the developing intestine follows its expression pattern. Murine and human NEC were associated with increased intestinal TLR4 and decreased TLR9 expression, suggesting that reciprocal TLR4 and TLR9 signaling may occur in the pathogenesis of NEC. Enteral administration of adenovirus expressing mutant TLR4 to neonatal mice reduced the severity of NEC and increased TLR9 expression within the intestine. Activation of TLR9 with CpG-DNA inhibited LPS-mediated TLR4 signaling in enterocytes in a mechanism dependent upon the inhibitory molecule IRAK-M. Strikingly, TLR9 activation with CpG-DNA significantly reduced NEC severity, whereas TLR9-deficient mice exhibited increased NEC severity. Thus, the reciprocal nature of TLR4 and TLR9 signaling within the neonatal intestine plays a role in the development of NEC and provides novel therapeutic approaches to this disease.

Transthoracic focused rapid echocardiographic examination: real-time evaluation of fluid status in critically ill trauma patients.

BACKGROUND: A transthoracic focused rapid echocardiographic evaluation (FREE) was developed to answer specific questions about treatment direction regarding the use of fluid versus ionotropes in trauma patients. Our objective was to evaluate the clinical utility of the information obtained by this diagnostic test. METHODS: The FREE was performed by an ultrasonographer or an intensivist and interpreted by a surgical intensivist using a full service portable echo machine (Vivid i; GE Healthcare). The clinical team ordering the examination was surveyed before and after the test was performed. RESULTS: During a 9-month study period, the FREE was performed in 53 patients admitted to our trauma critical care units. In 80% of patients, an estimated ejection fraction was obtained. Moderate and severe left ventricular dysfunction was diagnosed in 56% of patients, and right heart dysfunction was found in 25% of the patients. Inferior vena cava (IVC) diameter and IVC respiratory variation was visualized in 80% of patients. In 87% (46 of 53), the FREE was able to answer the clinical question asked by the primary team. Strikingly, in 54% of patients, the plan of care was modified as a result of the FREE examination. CONCLUSIONS: IVC diameter and IVC respiratory variation was able to be obtained in the majority of cases, giving an estimate of fluid status. Estimation of ejection fraction was useful in guiding the treatment plan regarding the requirement of fluid boluses versus ionotropic support. We conclude that the FREE can provide meaningful data in difficult to image critically ill trauma patients.

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography is an effective treatment for bile leak after severe liver trauma.

BACKGROUND: Biliary leak after severe hepatic trauma is a complex problem requiring multidisciplinary care. We report on our experience with endoscopic management of posttraumatic bile leaks and clarify the role of endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP). METHODS: A retrospective analysis was performed on all patients who sustained liver injury and underwent ERCP from September 2003 to September 2009. Patients who had associated biliary leak were identified. Patient demographics, injury characteristics, liver operations, endoscopic treatment, and success of endoscopic intervention were reviewed. Liver injury was managed in an interdisciplinary fashion, including immediate or delayed operation or angiography or both for primary or adjunctive hemostasis. ERCP with stenting and sphincterotomy was used to treat biliary fistulae. Sequelae of liver injury including biloma or other perihepatic fluid collection were also managed by computed tomography scan-guided or ultrasound-guided drainage. RESULTS: A total of 26 patients underwent ERCP for the management of biliary fistula as a result of severe hepatic trauma. There were 14 (54%) blunt injuries. In every patient (100%), ERCP with stenting and sphincterotomy was successful in controlling bile leak. All patients eventually had removal of stents and drains, with resolution of leak. Two patients had concomitant treatment of associated pancreatic ductal injury. CONCLUSION: ERCP is useful as both a diagnostic and therapeutic tool for the safe treatment of biliary ductal injuries after severe liver trauma and should be part of a multidisciplinary treatment algorithm.

Limited transthoracic echocardiogram: so easy any trauma attending can do it.

BACKGROUND: Limited transthoracic echocardiogram (LTTE) represents an attractive alternative to formal transthoracic echocardiogram (TTE), because it does not require an echocardiogram machine. Our hypothesis is that trauma attendings can learn LTTE effectively with minimal training. METHODS: Seven attendings at a Level I trauma center received didactic and hands-on training in LTTE and performed this test on hypotensive patients to evaluate for contractility, fluid status, and pericardial effusion. Therapy to improve perfusion (administration of fluids, ionotropes, or vasopressors) was guided by LTTE findings. Perfusion status was determined by serum lactate level before and 6 hours after LTTE. Findings were compared with cardiology-performed TTE. RESULTS: Range of postresidency training was 1 year to 29 years. LTTE teaching entailed 70 minutes of didactics and 25 minutes of hands-on. In all, 52 LTTEs were performed; two patients were excluded due to blunt trauma arrest. Age ranged from 22 years to 89 years with an average of 55 years. Admission diagnosis was blunt trauma (n = 34), penetrating trauma (n = 3), and intra-abdominal sepsis (n = 13). Average time for LTTE was 4 minutes 38 seconds. Cardiology-performed TTE was obtained in all patients, and correlation with LTTE was 100%. A total of 37 patients received intravenous fluid, 9 received vasopressors, and 4 received ionotropes as guided by LTTE findings, with lactate reduction in all patients (p < 0.00001). Attendings scored a mean of 88% in a written test after training. CONCLUSIONS: Trauma attendings can successfully learn LTTE with minimal training and use the technique as a resuscitation tool in the hypotensive patient.

How We Do It: Implementing a Virtual, Multi-Institutional Collaborative Education Model for the COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the implementation of a virtual, multi-institutional educational collaboration involving over 50 general surgery residency programs during the COVID-19 pandemic that enabled enhanced learning for surgical residents despite social-distancing requirements. DESIGN: Description of Virginia Commonwealth University's virtual educational augmentation program and the development of a collaborative teaching network during the coronavirus pandemic. SETTING: This collaboration was initiated by Virginia Commonwealth University's Department of Surgery, Richmond, VA, and grew to include general surgery residency programs from across the nation. PARTICIPANTS: General surgery residents and faculty from Departments of General Surgery were recruited locally via direct emails and nationally via the Association of Program Directors' listserv and Twitter. In total, 52 institutions participated from every part of the country. RESULTS: A virtual, multi-institutional collaborative lecture series was initiated that grew to involve over 50 general surgery residency programs, allowing for daily didactics by experts in their fields during the initial surge of the COVID-19 pandemic, while maintaining social distancing and the provision of essential clinical care. CONCLUSION: A multi-institutional collaboration enabled continued didactic education during the coronavirus pandemic, vastly broadening the expertise, scope and variety available to residents, while decreasing burden on faculty. We believe this can serve as a framework for future multi-institutional collaborations that extend beyond the COVID-19 era.

Imposter Syndrome in Surgical Trainees: Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale Assessment in General Surgery Residents.

BACKGROUND: Imposter syndrome occurs when high-achieving individuals have a pervasive sense of self-doubt combined with fear of being exposed as a fraud, despite objective measures of success. This threatens mental health and well-being. The prevalence and severity of imposter syndrome has not been studied among general surgery residents on a large scale. The primary outcomes of this study were the prevalence and severity of imposter syndrome. STUDY DESIGN: The Clance Impostor Phenomenon Scale was administered to residents at 6 academic general surgery residency programs. Multivariable analysis was performed to identify significant differences among groups and predictive characteristics of imposter syndrome. RESULTS: One hundred and forty-four residents completed the assessment (response rate 46.6%; 47.2% were male). Only 22.9% had "none to mild" or "moderate" imposter syndrome. A majority (76%) had "significant" or "severe" imposter syndrome. There were no significant differences in mean scores among male and female residents (p = 0.69). White residents had a mean score of 71.3 and non-White residents had a mean score of 68.3 (p = 0.24). There was no significant difference between PGY1 to PGY5 or research residents (p = 0.72). There were no significant differences based on US Medical Licensing Examination or American Board of Surgery In-Service Training Examination scores (p = 0.18 and p = 0.37, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Imposter syndrome is prevalent among general surgery residents, with 76% of residents reporting either significant or severe imposter syndrome. There were no predictive characteristics based on demographics or academic achievement, suggesting that there is something either inherent to those choosing general surgery training or the general surgery training culture that leads to such substantive levels of imposter syndrome.

Multi-institutional Collaborative Surgery Education Didactics: Virtual Adaptations During a Global Pandemic.

OBJECTIVE: The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted graduate medical education, impacting Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME)-mandated didactics. We aimed to study the utility of 2 methods of virtual learning: the daily National Surgery Resident Lecture Series (NSRLS), and weekly "SCORE School" educational webinars designed around the Surgical Council on Resident Education (SCORE) curriculum. DESIGN AND SETTING: NSRLS: The National Surgery Resident Lecture Series was a daily virtual educational session initially led by faculty at an individual surgical residency program. Thirty-eight lectures were assessed for number of live viewings (March 23, 2020-May 15, 2020). SCORE SCHOOL: Attendance at eleven weekly SCORE educational webinars was characterized into live and asynchronous viewings (May 13, 2020-August 5, 2020). Each 1-hour live webinar was produced by SCORE on a Wednesday evening and featured nationally recognized surgeon educators using an online platform that allowed for audience interaction. RESULTS: NSRLS: There were a mean of 71 live viewers per NSRLS session (range 19-118). Participation began to decline in the final 2 weeks as elective case volumes increased, but sessions remained well-attended. SCORE SCHOOL: There were a range of 164-3889 live viewers per SCORE School session. Sessions have most commonly been viewed asynchronously (89.8% of viewings). Live viewership decreased as the academic year ended and then rebounded with the start of the new academic year (range 4.9%-27%). Overall, the eight webinars were viewed 11,135 times. Each webinar continues to be viewed a mean of 43 times a day (range 0-102). Overall, the eleven webinars have been viewed a total of 22,722 times. CONCLUSIONS: Virtual didactics aimed at surgical residents are feasible, well-attended (both live and recorded), and have high levels of viewer engagement. We have observed that careful coordination of timing and topics is ideal. The ability for asynchronous viewing is particularly important for attendance. As the COVID-19 pandemic continues to disrupt healthcare systems, training programs must continue to adapt to education via virtual platforms.

A role for connexin43 in macrophage phagocytosis and host survival after bacterial peritoneal infection.

The pathways that lead to the internalization of pathogens via phagocytosis remain incompletely understood. We now demonstrate a previously unrecognized role for the gap junction protein connexin43 (Cx43) in the regulation of phagocytosis by macrophages and in the host response to bacterial infection of the peritoneal cavity. Primary and cultured macrophages were found to express Cx43, which localized to the phagosome upon the internalization of IgG-opsonized particles. The inhibition of Cx43 using small interfering RNA or by obtaining macrophages from Cx43 heterozygous or knockout mice resulted in significantly impaired phagocytosis, while transfection of Cx43 into Fc-receptor expressing HeLa cells, which do not express endogenous Cx43, conferred the ability of these cells to undergo phagocytosis. Infection of macrophages with adenoviruses expressing wild-type Cx43 restored phagocytic ability in macrophages from Cx43 heterozygous or deficient mice, while infection with viruses that expressed mutant Cx43 had no effect. In understanding the mechanisms involved, Cx43 was required for RhoA-dependent actin cup formation under adherent particles, and transfection with constitutively active RhoA restored a phagocytic phenotype after Cx43 inactivation. Remarkably, mortality was significantly increased in a mouse model of bacterial peritonitis after Cx43 inhibition and in Cx43 heterozygous mice compared with untreated and wild-type counterparts. These findings reveal a novel role for Cx43 in the regulation of phagocytosis and rearrangement of the F-actin cytoskeleton, and they implicate Cx43 in the regulation of the host response to microbial infection.

Traumatic Decompression of the Jejunum: A Case of Small Bowel Perforation From High-Speed Motor Vehicle Crash.

We present a rare case of a focal perforation of the jejunum after a high-speed motor vehicle crash. A 60-year-old restrained rear seat passenger presented with severe abdominal pain. She was hemodynamically stable and underwent the traditional trauma workup. CT scan of the abdomen showed large-volume free intraperitoneal air and L4/L5 compression fractures. Given the peritoneal physical exam finding and free air on CT scan she was taken emergently to the operating room. Operative exploration revealed free intraperitoneal air upon entry into the abdominal cavity as well as murky fluid throughout the mid abdomen. A focal perforation was discovered on the antimesenteric surface of a segment of jejunum. The perforation was repaired primarily in two layers and the abdomen was closed. Postoperative course was uncomplicated. Antibiotics were continued for 4 days. Focal perforation of the small bowel from high-speed blunt trauma is a rare isolated injury. Close attention to physical exam and radiologic findings allows for early diagnosis and treatment of these injuries.

Impact of Surgery Program Characteristics on Fate of Non-designated Preliminary Surgery Interns.

OBJECTIVE: Non-designated preliminary (NDP) general surgery residents face the daunting challenge of obtaining a categorical residency position while undertaking the rigors of a general surgery residency. This additional application cycle represents a stressful time for these trainees and limited data exists to help guide applicants and program directors regarding the factors predictive of application success. While previous studies have focused solely on applicant related factors, no study to date has evaluated the effect of the residency program structure, institutional resources, or administrative support on these outcomes. DESIGN/SETTING: A multicenter retrospective review of 10 general surgery residency programs over a 5-year period from 2014 to 2019 was performed. Applicant related information was compiled from NDP general surgery residents and the results of their attempted second application into a categorical position. Applicant factors including age, gender, standardized test scores (USMLE/ABSITE), and professional training were examined. Program and administrative structure including residency class size, number of NDP PGY-2 positions, number of assistant program directors and program director (PD) background were also examined. Primary success was defined as a NDP resident successfully obtaining a categorical position within general surgery or a surgical subspecialty. Secondary success was obtaining a categorical residency position in any field of medical practice other than surgery or a surgical subspecialty in the United States. RESULTS: A total of 260 NDP trainees were evaluated with an average age of 29.1. Almost seventy percent of applicants were male, 40% graduated from a non-U.S. medical school and 24.2% required a visa to work in the United States. Thirty 4 percent of NDPs successfully obtained a categorical surgery position and an additional 35% obtained a categorical residency position in a nonsurgical field for an overall match success rate of 68.9%. Factors associated with primary success included ABSITE score (p < 0.001), US medical school graduation (p = 0.02), visa status (p = 0.03), presence of preliminary PGY-2 positions (p = 0.02), and PD professional development time (p = 0.004). Overall success was associated USMLE Step 1 scores (p = 0.02), number of approved chiefs (p = 0.03), presence of dedicated faculty researchers (p = 0.001), and PD professional development time (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Applicant, program-related, and administrative factors all have a significant impact on the success of NDP general surgery residents in obtaining a categorical surgical position. Trainees should consider all of these factors when applying to NDP residencies and in approaching their second application cycle to maximize their likelihood of a successful match.

Ad astra per aspera (Through Hardships to the Stars): Lessons Learned from the First National Virtual APDS Meeting, 2020.

OBJECTIVE: After COVID-19 rendered in-person meetings for national societies impossible in the spring of 2020, the leadership of the Association of Program Directors in Surgery (APDS) innovated via a virtual format in order to hold its national meeting. DESIGN: APDS leadership pre-emptively considered factors that would be important to attendees including cost, value, time, professional commitments, education, sharing of relevant and current information, and networking. SETTING: The meeting was conducted using a variety of virtual formats including a web portal for entry, pre-ecorded poster and oral presentations on the APDS website, interactive panels via a web conferencing platform, and livestreaming. PARTICIPANTS: There were 298 registrants for the national meeting of the APDS, and 59 participants in the New Program Directors Workshop. The registrants and participants comprised medical students, residents, associate program directors, program directors, and others involved in surgical education nationally. RESULTS: There was no significant difference detected for high levels of participant satisfaction between 2019 and 2020 for the following items: overall program rating, topics and content meeting stated objectives, relevant content to educational needs, educational format conducive to learning, and agreement that the program will improve competence, performance, communication skills, patient outcomes, or processes of care/healthcare system performance. CONCLUSIONS: A virtual format for a national society meeting can provide education, engagement, and community, and the lessons learned by the APDS in the process can be used by other societies for utilization and further improvement.

Detecting direct oral anticoagulants in trauma patients using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry: A novel approach to medication reconciliation.

BACKGROUND: Accurate medication reconciliation in trauma patients is essential but difficult. Currently, there is no established clinical method of detecting direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) in trauma patients. We hypothesized that a liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LCMS)-based assay can be used to accurately detect DOACs in trauma patients upon hospital arrival. METHODS: Plasma samples were collected from 356 patients who provided informed consent including 10 healthy controls, 19 known positive or negative controls, and 327 trauma patients older than 65 years who were evaluated at our large, urban level 1 trauma center. The assay methodology was developed in healthy and known controls to detect apixaban, rivaroxaban, and dabigatran using LCMS and then applied to 327 samples from trauma patients. Standard medication reconciliation processes in the electronic medical record documenting DOAC usage were compared with LCMS results to determine overall accuracy, sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values (PPV, NPV) of the assay. RESULTS: Of 356 patients, 39 (10.96%) were on DOACs: 21 were on apixaban, 14 on rivaroxaban, and 4 on dabigatran. The overall accuracy of the assay for detecting any DOAC was 98.60%, with a sensitivity of 94.87% and specificity of 99.05% (PPV, 92.50%; NPV, 99.37%). The assay detected apixaban with a sensitivity of 90.48% and specificity of 99.10% (PPV, 86.36%; NPV 99.40%). There were three false-positive results and two false-negative LCMS results for apixaban. Dabigatran and rivaroxaban were detected with 100% sensitivity and specificity. CONCLUSION: This LCMS-based assay was highly accurate in detecting DOACs in trauma patients. Further studies need to confirm the clinical efficacy of this LCMS assay and its value for medication reconciliation in trauma patients. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Diagnostic Test, level III.

The role of epithelial Toll-like receptor signaling in the pathogenesis of intestinal inflammation.

Emerging evidence suggests that the innate immune system, comprised of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and their associated molecules, plays a pivotal role in the regulation of intestinal inflammation and in the response to invading pathogens. Although TLRs are thought to have predominantly beneficial effects in pathogen recognition and bacterial clearance by leukocytes, their dysregulation and unique signaling effects within intestinal epithelia in the setting of inflammation may have devastating consequences. For instance, activation of TLR4 in enterocytes leads to an inhibition of enterocyte migration and proliferation as well as the induction of enterocyte apoptosis-factors that would be expected to promote intestinal injury while inhibiting intestinal repair. TLR signaling has been shown to be abnormal in several intestinal inflammatory diseases, including Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, and necrotizing enterocolitis. This review serves to examine the evidence regarding the patterns of expression and signaling of TLRs in the intestinal mucosa at basal levels and during physiologic stressors to gain insights into the pathogenesis of intestinal inflammation. We conclude that the data reviewed suggest that epithelial TLR signaling-acting in concert with TLR signaling by leukocytes-participates in the development of intestinal inflammation. We further conclude that the evidence reviewed provides a rationale for the development of novel, epithelial-specific, TLR-based agents in the management of diseases of intestinal inflammation.

Medications and patient safety in the trauma setting: a systematic review.

Background: Medication errors account for the most common adverse events and a significant cause of mortality in the USA. The Joint Commission has required medication reconciliation since 2006. We aimed to survey the literature and determine the challenges and effectiveness of medication reconciliation in the trauma patient population. Materials and methods: We conducted a systematic review of the literature to determine the effectiveness of medication reconciliation in trauma patients. English language articles were retrieved from PubMed/Medline, CINAHL, and Cochrane Review databases with search terms "trauma OR injury, AND medication reconciliation OR med rec OR med rek, AND effectiveness OR errors OR intervention OR improvements." Results: The search resulted in 82 articles. After screening for relevance and duplicates, the 43 remaining were further reviewed, and only four articles, which presented results on medication reconciliation in 3041 trauma patients, were included. Two were retrospective and two were prospective. Two showed only 4% accuracy at time of admission with 48% of medication reconciliations having at least one medication discrepancy. There were major differences across the studies prohibiting comparative statistical analysis. Conclusions: Trauma medication reconciliation is important because of the potential for adverse outcomes given the emergent nature of the illness. The few articles published at this time on medication reconciliation in trauma suggest poor accuracy. Numerous strategies have been implemented in general medicine to improve its accuracy, but these have not yet been studied in trauma. This topic is an important but unrecognized area of research in this field.

Hypoxia causes an increase in phagocytosis by macrophages in a HIF-1alpha-dependent manner.

Phagocytosis is the process by which microbial pathogens are engulfed by macrophages and neutrophils and represents the first line of defense against bacterial infection. The importance of phagocytosis for bacterial clearance is of particular relevance to systemic inflammatory diseases, which are associated with the development of hypoxia, yet the precise effects of hypoxia on phagocytosis remain largely unexplored. We now hypothesize that hypoxia inhibits phagocytosis in macrophages and sought to determine the mechanisms involved. Despite our initial prediction, hypoxia significantly increased the phagocytosis rate of particles in vitro by RAW264.7 and primary peritoneal macrophages and increased phagocytosis of labeled bacteria in vivo by hypoxic mice compared with normoxic controls. In understanding the mechanisms involved, hypoxia caused no changes in RhoA-GTPase signaling but increased the phosphorylation of p38-MAPK significantly. Inhibition of p38 reversed the effects of hypoxia on phagocytosis, suggesting a role for p38 in the hypoxic regulation of phagocytosis. Hypoxia also significantly increased the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor-1alpha (HIF-1alpha) in macrophages, which was reversed after p38 inhibition, suggesting a link between p38 activation and HIF-1alpha expression. It is striking that small interfering RNA knockdown of HIF-1alpha reversed the effects of hypoxia on phagocytosis, and overexpression of HIF-1alpha caused a surprising increase in phagocytosis compared with nontransfected controls, demonstrating a specific role for HIF-1alpha in the regulation of phagocytosis. These data indicate that hypoxia enhances phagocytosis in macrophages in a HIF-1alpha-dependent manner and shed light on an important role for HIF-1alpha in host defense.

High-Fidelity Emergency Department Thoracotomy Simulator With Beating-Heart Technology and OSATS Tool Improves Trainee Confidence and Distinguishes Level of Skill.

OBJECTIVE: Resuscitative Thoracotomy or Emergency Department Thoracotomy (EDT) is a time-sensitive and potentially life-saving procedure. Yet, trainee experience with this procedure is often limited in both clinical and simulation settings. We sought to develop a high-fidelity EDT simulation module and assessment tool to facilitate trainee education. DESIGN: Using the Kern model for curricular development, a group of expert trauma surgeons identified EDT as a high-stakes, low-frequency procedure. Task analysis identified 5 key steps of EDT: (1) opening chest/rib spreader utilization; (2) pericardiotomy/cardiac repair; (3) open cardiac massage; (4) clamping aorta; and (5) control of pulmonary hilum. A high-fidelity simulator with beating-heart technology was built. The previously validated Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills (OSATS) was adapted to create the "EDT-OSATS" which assessed performance along several domains: (1) Surgical technique (key steps); (2) general skills; and (3) global rating. A pilot test was performed to compare board-certified trauma surgeons (i.e., Experts) with categorical general surgery interns (i.e., Novices). Each subject received preparatory materials, completed a presimulation quiz, performed a videotaped procedure on the EDT simulator, and completed a postmodule survey. Two independent raters scored performances using the EDT-OSATS. Groups were compared in descriptive and unadjusted analyses. We hypothesized that our EDT simulation module would distinguish between expert vs novice performance and improve trainee confidence. SETTING: Simulation laboratory at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston, MA. PARTICIPANTS: Trauma surgeons (Experts, n = 6) and categorical general surgery interns (Novices, n = 8). RESULTS: Experts scored significantly higher than Novices on nearly all components of the EDT-OSATS, including: (1) surgical technique: pericardiotomy (4.2 vs 3.4, p = 0.040), cardiac massage (3.6 vs 2.4, p = 0.028), clamping aorta (4.1 vs 3.3, p = 0.035), control of pulmonary hilum (4.8 vs 3.4, p < 0.001); (2) general skills: time/motion (4.1 vs 2.9, p = 0.011), knowledge and handling of instruments (4.3 vs 3.1, p = 0.004), and (3) global rating (3.9 vs 2.9, p = 0.026). There was no statistical difference between groups on opening chest/rib spreader utilization (3.8 vs 3.3, p = 0.352) or procedure time (204sec vs 227sec, p = 0.401), though Experts scored numerically higher than Novices on every measure. Novices reported significantly increased confidence after the simulation (3.1 vs 1.4, p = 0.001). Ninety-three percent (13/14) of participants found the simulator realistic. CONCLUSIONS: Our novel high-fidelity beating-heart EDT simulator is realistic and improves trainee confidence in this low-frequency, high-stakes emergency procedure. The EDT-OSATS tool differentiates between performances of experienced surgeons vs novice trainees on the beating-heart simulator. This training module and accompanying assessment instrument hold promise as a learning tool for clinicians who may perform emergency department thoracotomy.