Outcome prediction in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: a focus on computed tomography variables.

BACKGROUND: With this study we aimed to design validated outcome prediction models in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) using demographic, clinical, and radiological parameters. METHODS: Seven hundred consecutive moderate or severe TBI patients were included in this observational prospective cohort study. After inclusion, clinical data were collected, initial head computed tomography (CT) scans were rated, and at 6 months outcome was determined using the extended Glasgow Outcome Scale. Multivariate binary logistic regression analysis was applied to evaluate the association between potential predictors and three different outcome endpoints. The prognostic models that resulted were externally validated in a national Dutch TBI cohort. RESULTS: In line with previous literature we identified age, pupil responses, Glasgow Coma Scale score and the occurrence of a hypotensive episode post-injury as predictors. Furthermore, several CT characteristics were associated with outcome; the aspect of the ambient cisterns being the most powerful. After external validation using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis our prediction models demonstrated adequate discriminative values, quantified by the area under the ROC curve, of 0.86 for death versus survival and 0.83 for unfavorable versus favorable outcome. Discriminative power was less for unfavorable outcome in survivors: 0.69. CONCLUSIONS: Outcome prediction in moderate and severe TBI might be improved using the models that were designed in this study. However, conventional demographic, clinical and CT variables proved insufficient to predict disability in surviving patients. The information that can be derived from our prediction rules is important for the selection and stratification of patients recruited into clinical TBI trials.

Factors influencing intracranial pressure monitoring guideline compliance and outcome after severe traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To determine adherence to Brain Trauma Foundation guidelines for intracranial pressure monitoring after severe traumatic brain injury, to investigate if characteristics of patients treated according to guidelines (ICP+) differ from those who were not (ICP-), and whether guideline compliance is related to 6-month outcome. DESIGN: Observational multicenter study. PATIENTS: Consecutive severe traumatic brain injury patients (≥16 yrs, n = 265) meeting criteria for intracranial pressure monitoring. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Data on demographics, injury severity, computed tomography findings, and patient management were registered. The Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended was dichotomized into death (Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended = 1) and unfavorable outcome (Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended 1-4). Guideline compliance was 46%. Differences between the monitored and nonmonitored patients included a younger age (median 44 vs. 53 yrs), more abnormal pupillary reactions (52% vs. 32%), and more intracranial pathology (subarachnoid hemorrhage 62% vs. 44%; intraparenchymal lesions 65% vs. 46%) in the ICP+ group. Patients with a total intracranial lesion volume of ~150 mL and a midline shift of ~12 mm were most likely to receive an intracranial pressure monitor and probabilities decreased with smaller and larger lesions and shifts. Furthermore, compliance was low in patients with no (Traumatic Coma Databank score I -10%) visible intracranial pathology. Differences in case-mix resulted in higher a priori probabilities of dying (median 0.51 vs. 0.35, p < .001) and unfavorable outcome (median 0.79 vs. 0.63, p < .001) in the ICP+ group. After correction for baseline and clinical characteristics with a propensity score, intracranial pressure monitoring guideline compliance was not associated with mortality (odds ratio 0.93, 95% confidence interval 0.47-1.85, p = .83) nor with unfavorable outcome (odds ratio 1.81, 95% confidence interval 0.88-3.73, p = .11). CONCLUSIONS: Guideline noncompliance was most prominent in patients with minor or very large computed tomography abnormalities. Intracranial pressure monitoring was not associated with 6-month outcome, but multiple baseline differences between monitored and nonmonitored patients underline the complex nature of examining the effect of intracranial pressure monitoring in observational studies.

Development and external validation of a new PTA assessment scale.

BACKGROUND: Post-traumatic amnesia (PTA) is a key symptom of traumatic brain injury (TBI). Accurate assessment of PTA is imperative in guiding clinical decision making. Our aim was to develop and externally validate a short, examiner independent and practical PTA scale, by selecting the most discriminative items from existing scales and using a three-word memory test. METHODS: Mild, moderate and severe TBI patients and control subjects were assessed in two separate cohorts, one for derivation and one for validation, using a questionnaire comprised of items from existing PTA scales. We tested which individual items best discriminated between TBI patients and controls, represented by sensitivity and specificity. We then created our PTA scale based on these results. This new scale was externally evaluated for its discriminative value using Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis and compared to existing PTA scales. RESULTS: The derivation cohort included 126 TBI patients and 31 control subjects; the validation cohort consisted of 132 patients and 30 controls. A set of seven items was eventually selected to comprise the new PTA scale: age, name of hospital, time, day of week, month, mode of transport and recall of three words. This scale demonstrated adequate discriminative values compared to existing PTA scales on three consecutive administrations in the validation cohort. CONCLUSION: We introduce a valid, practical and examiner independent PTA scale, which is suitable for mild TBI patients at the emergency department and yet still valuable for the follow-up of more severely injured TBI patients.

The reliability of magnetic resonance imaging in traumatic brain injury lesion detection.

OBJECTIVE: This study compares inter-rater-reliability, lesion detection and clinical relevance of T2-weighted imaging (T2WI), Fluid Attenuated Inversion Recovery (FLAIR), T2*-gradient recalled echo (T2*-GRE) and Susceptibility Weighted Imaging (SWI) in Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). METHODS: Three raters retrospectively scored 56 TBI patients' MR images (12-76 years old, median TBI-MRI interval 7 weeks) on number, volume, location and intensity. Punctate lesions (diameter <10 mm) were scored separately from large lesions (diameter ≥ 10 mm). Injury severity was assessed with the Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), outcome with the Glasgow Outcome Scale-Extended (GOSE). RESULTS: Inter-rater-reliability for lesion volume and punctate lesion count was good (ICC = 0.69-0.94) except for punctate lesion count on T2WI (ICC = 0.19) and FLAIR (ICC = 0.15). SWI showed the highest number of lesions (mean = 30.0), followed by T2*-GRE (mean = 15.4), FLAIR (mean = 3.1) and T2WI (mean = 2.2). Sequences did not differ in detected lesion volume. Punctate lesion count on T2*-GRE (r = -0.53) and SWI (r = -0.49) correlated with the GCS (p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: T2*-GRE and SWI are more sensitive than T2WI and FLAIR in detecting (haemorrhagic) traumatic punctate lesions. The correlation between number of punctate lesions on T2*-GRE/SWI and the GCS indicates that haemorrhagic lesions are clinically relevant. The considerable inter-rater-disagreement in this study advocates cautiousness in interpretation of punctate lesions using T2WI and FLAIR.

Effect of secondary prehospital risk factors on outcome in severe traumatic brain injury in the context of fast access to trauma care.

BACKGROUND: Prevention of secondary prehospital risk factors such as hypoxia and hypotension is likely to improve patient prognosis in severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Because the Dutch trauma care organization is characterized by fast access to specialized trauma care due to the geographical situation, we investigated whether and to what extend secondary risk factors, such as hypoxia and hypotension, and measures, such as endotracheal intubation, affect outcome in severe TBI in the context of a region with fast access to trauma care. METHODS: The medical records of 339 subsequent computed tomography-confirmed patients with TBI with a Glasgow coma scale (GCS) score≤8 who were primarily referred to a Level I trauma center in Amsterdam or Nijmegen in the Netherlands were retrospectively analyzed. RESULTS: Multinomial logistic regression revealed that the strongest outcome predictors in our population were a disturbed pupillary reflex (odds ratio [OR], 5.8), a GCS score of 3 (OR, 4.9), and arterial hypotension (OR, 3.5). Interestingly, we observed no differences between intubated and nonintubated patients with respect to metabolic and respiratory parameters or mortality whereby the injury severity score was slightly higher in endotracheally intubated patients (32 [25-41]) versus nonintubated patients (25 [22-29]). CONCLUSION: In agreement with others, GCS, a disturbed pupil reflex, and arterial hypotension were predictive for the prognosis of primarily referred patients with severe TBI in the Netherlands. In contrast, in the perspective of slightly higher injury scores in intubated patients, prehospital endotracheal intubation was not predictive for patient outcome.

Clinical characteristics and pathophysiological mechanisms of focal and diffuse traumatic brain injury.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a frequent and clinically highly heterogeneous neurological disorder with large socioeconomic consequences. TBI severity classification, based on the hospital admission Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score, ranges from mild (GCS 13-15) and moderate (GCS 9-12) to severe (GCS ≤ 8). The GCS reflects the risk of dying from TBI, which is low after mild (∼1%), intermediate after moderate (up to 15%) and high (up to 40%) after severe TBI. Intracranial damage can be focal, such as epidural and subdural haematomas and parenchymal contusions, or diffuse, for example traumatic axonal injury and diffuse cerebral oedema, although this distinction is somewhat arbitrary. Study of the cellular and molecular post-traumatic processes is essential for the understanding of TBI pathophysiology but even more to find therapeutic targets for the development of neuroprotective drugs to be eventually used in human beings. To date, studies in vitro and in vivo, mainly in animals but also in human beings, are unravelling the pathological TBI mechanisms at high pace. Nevertheless, TBI pathophysiology is all but completely elucidated. Neuroprotective treatment studies in human beings have been disappointing thus far and have not resulted in commonly accepted drugs. This review presents an overview on the clinical aspects and the pathophysiology of focal and diffuse TBI, and it highlights several acknowledged important events that occur on molecular and cellular level after TBI.

Sensitivity and specificity of the 3-item memory test in the assessment of post traumatic amnesia.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To investigate how the type of stimulus (pictures or words) and the method of reproduction (free recall or recognition after a short or a long delay) affect the sensitivity and specificity of a 3-item memory test in the assessment of post traumatic amnesia (PTA). METHODS: Daily testing was performed in 64 consecutively admitted traumatic brain injured patients, 22 orthopedically injured patients and 26 healthy controls until criteria for resolution of PTA were reached. Subjects were randomly assigned to a test with visual or verbal stimuli. Short delay reproduction was tested after an interval of 3-5 minutes, long delay reproduction was tested after 24 hours. Sensitivity and specificity were calculated over the first 4 test days. RESULTS: The 3-word test showed higher sensitivity than the 3-picture test, while specificity of the two tests was equally high. Free recall was a more effortful task than recognition for both patients and controls. In patients, a longer delay between registration and recall resulted in a significant decrease in the number of items reproduced. CONCLUSIONS: Presence of PTA is best assessed with a memory test that incorporates the free recall of words after a long delay.

Impact of depression and post-traumatic stress disorder on functional outcome and health-related quality of life of patients with mild traumatic brain injury.

The impact of disability following traumatic brain injury (TBI), assessed by functional measurement scales for TBI or by health-related quality of life (HRQoL), may vary because of a number of factors, including presence of depression or post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). The aim of this study was to assess prevalence and impact of depression and PTSD on functional outcome and HRQoL six and 12 months following mild TBI. We selected a sample of 1919 TBI patients who presented to the emergency department (ED) followed by either hospital admission or discharge to the home environment. The sample received postal questionnaires six and 12 months after treatment at the ED. The questionnaires included items regarding socio-demographics, the 36-item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-36), the Perceived Quality of Life Scale (PQoL), the Beck Depression Inventory, and the Impact of Event Scale. A total of 797 (42%) TBI patients completed the six-month follow-up survey. Depression and PTSD prevalence rates at both the six- and 12-month follow-up were 7% and 9%, respectively. Living alone was an independent predictor of depression and/or PTSD at six- and 12-month follow-up. Depression and PTSD were associated with a significantly decreased functional outcome (measured with Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended) and HRQoL (measured using the SF-36 and the PQoL). We conclude that depression and/or PTSD are relatively common in our sample of TBI patients and associated with a considerable decrease in functional outcome and HRQoL.

Prognosis in moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: external validation of the IMPACT models and the role of extracranial injuries.

BACKGROUND: Several prognostic models to predict outcome in traumatic brain injury (TBI) have been developed, but few are externally validated. We aimed to validate the International Mission on Prognosis and Analysis of Clinical Trials in TBI (IMPACT) prognostic models in a recent unselected patient cohort and to assess the additional prognostic value of extracranial injury. METHODS: The Prospective Observational COhort Neurotrauma (POCON) registry contains 508 patients with moderate or severe TBI, who were admitted in 2008 and 2009 to five trauma centers in the Netherlands. We predicted the probability of mortality and unfavorable outcome at 6 months after injury with the IMPACT prognostic models. We studied discrimination (area under the curve [AUC]) and calibration. We added the extracranial component of the Injury Severity Score (ISS) to the models and calculated the increase in AUC. RESULTS: The IMPACT models had an adequate discrimination in the POCON registry, with AUCs in the external validation between 0.85 and 0.90 for mortality and between 0.82 and 0.87 for unfavorable outcome. Observed outcomes agreed well with predicted outcomes. Adding extracranial injury slightly improved predictions in the overall population (unfavorable outcome: AUC increase of 0.002, p = 0.02; mortality: AUC increase of 0.000, p = 0.37) but more clearly in patients with moderate TBI (unfavorable outcome: AUC increase of 0.008, p < 0.01, mortality: AUC increase of 0.012, p = 0.02) and patients with minor computed tomographic result abnormalities (unfavorable outcome: AUC increase of 0.013, p < 0.01; mortality: AUC increase of 0.001, p = 0.08). CONCLUSION: The IMPACT models performed well in a recent series of TBI patients. We found some additional impact of extracranial injury on outcome, specifically in patients with less severe TBI or minor computed tomographic result abnormalities. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Epidemiologic/prognostic study.

Abnormal whole-brain functional networks in homogeneous acute mild traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the whole-brain resting-state networks in a homogeneous group of patients with acute mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) and to identify alterations in functional connectivity induced by MTBI. METHODS: Thirty-five patients with acute MTBI and 35 healthy control subjects, matched in age, gender, handedness, and education, underwent resting-state fMRI, susceptibility weighted imaging, neuropsychological, and postconcussive symptom assessments. We ensured the homogeneity of the patient group by limiting the injury mechanism to fronto-occipital impacts. Alterations in functional connectivity were analyzed by using data-driven independent component analysis, which is not biased by a priori region selection. RESULTS: We found a decrease in functional connectivity within the motor-striatal network in the MTBI group. At the same time, patients showed deficits in psychomotor speed as well as in speed of information processing. We propose that although disorders in motor function after MTBI are rarely reported, injury still has an effect on motor functioning, which in its turn may also explain the reduction in speed of information processing. Further, we found a cluster of increased functional connectivity in the right frontoparietal network in the MTBI group. We suggest that this abnormal increased connectivity might reflect increased awareness to external environment and explain excessive cognitive fatigue reported by patients with MTBI. It might also underlie the physical postconcussive symptoms, such as headache and increased sensitivity to noise/light. CONCLUSIONS: We proved that whole-brain functional connectivity is altered early (within 4 weeks) after MTBI, suggesting that changes in functional networks underlie the cognitive deficits and postconcussive complaints reported by patients with MTBI.

Multicenter evaluation of the course of coagulopathy in patients with isolated traumatic brain injury: relation to CT characteristics and outcome.

This prospective multicenter study investigated the association of the course of coagulation abnormalities with initial computed tomography (CT) characteristics and outcome in patients with isolated traumatic brain injury (TBI). Patient demographics, coagulation parameters, CT characteristics, and outcome data of moderate and severe TBI patients without major extracranial injuries were prospectively collected. Coagulopathy was defined as absent, early but temporary, delayed, or early and sustained. Delayed/sustained coagulopathy was associated with a higher incidence of disturbed pupillary responses (40% versus 27%; p<0.001) and higher Traumatic Coma Data Bank (TCDB) CT classification (5 (2-5) versus 2 (1-5); p=0.003) than in patients without or with early, but short-lasting coagulopathy. The initial CT of patients with delayed/sustained coagulopathy more frequently showed intracranial hemorrhage and signs of raised intracranial pressure (ICP) compared to patients with early coagulopathy only. This was paralleled by higher in-hospital mortality rates (51% versus 33%; p<0.05), and poorer 6-month functional outcome in patients with delayed/sustained coagulopathy. The relative risk for in-hospital mortality was particularly related to disturbed pupillary responses (OR 8.19; 95% CI 3.15,21.32; p<0.001), early, short-lasting coagulopathy (OR 6.70; 95% CI 1.74,25.78; p=0.006), or delayed/sustained coagulopathy (OR 5.25; 95% CI 2.06,13.40; p=0.001). Delayed/sustained coagulopathy is more frequently associated with CT abnormalities and unfavorable outcome at 6 months after TBI than early, short-lasting coagulopathy. Our finding that not only the mere presence but also the time course of coagulopathy holds predictive value for patient outcome underlines the importance of systematic hemostatic monitoring over time in TBI.

Epidemiology, severity classification, and outcome of moderate and severe traumatic brain injury: a prospective multicenter study.

Changes in the demographics, approach, and treatment of traumatic brain injury (TBI) patients require regular evaluation of epidemiological profiles, injury severity classification, and outcomes. This prospective multicenter study provides detailed information on TBI-related variables of 508 moderate-to-severe TBI patients. Variability in epidemiology and outcome is examined by comparing our cohort with previous multicenter studies. Additionally, the relation between outcome and injury severity classification assessed at different time points is studied. Based on the emergency department Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS), 339 patients were classified as having severe and 129 as having moderate TBI. In 15%, the diagnosis differed when the accident scene GCS was used for classification. In-hospital mortality was higher if severe TBI was diagnosed at both time points (44%) compared to moderate TBI at one or both time points (7-15%, p<0.001). Furthermore, 14% changed diagnosis when a threshold (≥6 h) for impaired consciousness was used as a criterion for severe TBI: In-hospital mortality was<5% when impaired consciousness lasted for<6 h. This suggests that combining multiple clinical assessments and using a threshold for impaired consciousness may improve the classification of injury severity and prediction of outcome. Compared to earlier multicenter studies, our cohort demonstrates a different case mix that includes a higher age (mean=47.3 years), more diffuse (Traumatic Coma Databank [TCDB] I-II) injuries (58%), and more major extracranial injuries (40%), with relatively high 6 month mortality rates for both severe (46%) and moderate (21%) TBI. Our results confirm that TBI epidemiology and injury patterns have changed in recent years whereas case fatality rates remain high.

Cognitive performance after mild traumatic brain injury: the impact of poor effort on test results and its relation to distress, personality and litigation.

PRIMARY OBJECTIVE: To compare consecutive Mild Traumatic Brain Injury (MTBI) patients with and without adequate effort on cognitive performance, litigation status, fatigue, distress and personality. RESEARCH DESIGN: (Neuro)psychological assessment was done 6 months post-injury in 110 patients from a cohort of 618 consecutive MTBI patients aged 18-60, who attended the emergency department of our level I trauma centre. Effort was tested with the Amsterdam Short Term Memory test. MAIN OUTCOME AND RESULTS: Thirty patients (27%) failed the effort test. Poor effort was associated with significantly poorer scores on seven out of eleven measures, covering all tested domains. Poor effort was associated with lower educational level and changes in work status, but not litigation. Furthermore, poor effort was related to high levels of distress, Type-D personality and fatigue. CONCLUSIONS: Even in a sample of non-referred MTBI patients, poor effort was common and was strongly associated with inferior test performance. These findings imply that effort testing should be part of all cognitive assessments, also outside mediolegal settings. Behavioural factors like distress and personality should be considered as potential threats to the validity of neuropsychological testing after MTBI.