Crude Polysaccharides from Mushrooms Elicit an Anti-Allergic Effect Against Type 1 Allergy In Vitro.

Type 1 allergic disease is a global challenge, hence the search for alternative therapies. Mushrooms have several medicinal and health benefits. However, scant data exist on the anti-allergic properties of polysaccharides from fruiting bodies (FB) and mycelia of mushrooms. We used an in vitro co-culture system comprising Caco-2 cells (intestinal epithelial colorectal carcinoma cell line) and RBL-2H3 cells (cell line from rat basophilic leukemia cells). Reduction in degranulation of mast cells indicated anti-allergy properties. The inhibitory effect of crude polysaccharides from different mushroom FB and mycelia on ß-hexosaminidase release from RBL-2H3 cells was measured. Results showed that crude polysaccharides from the FB of Inonotus obliquus exhibited a significant inhibitory effect on ß-hexosaminidase release and lowered it by 16%. Polysaccharides from the FB of Lentinus squarrosulus, and Pleurotus ostreatus did not exhibit a significant reduction in ß-hexosaminidase. However, crude polysaccharides from their mycelia had a significant inhibitory effect, resulting in up to a 23% reduction in ß-hexosaminidase activity. Among fungi showing degranulation properties, crude polysaccharides from their mycelia showed more potent action against degranulation than their corresponding FB. Polysaccharides extracted from FB and or mycelia, of selected mushrooms, possess anti-allergic properties that could be harnessed for use in alternative allergy therapies.

Potential for Use of Species in the Subfamily Erynioideae for Biological Control and Biotechnology.

The fungal order Entomophthorales in the Zoopagomycota includes many fungal pathogens of arthropods. This review explores six genera in the subfamily Erynioideae within the family Entomophthoraceae, namely, Erynia, Furia, Orthomyces, Pandora, Strongwellsea, and Zoophthora. This is the largest subfamily in the Entomophthorales, including 126 described species. The species diversity, global distribution, and host range of this subfamily are summarized. Relatively few taxa are geographically widespread, and few have broad host ranges, which contrasts with many species with single reports from one location and one host species. The insect orders infected by the greatest numbers of species are the Diptera and Hemiptera. Across the subfamily, relatively few species have been cultivated in vitro, and those that have require more specialized media than many other fungi. Given their potential to attack arthropods and their position in the fungal evolutionary tree, we discuss which species might be adopted for biological control purposes or biotechnological innovations. Current challenges in the implementation of these species in biotechnology include the limited ability or difficulty in culturing many in vitro, a correlated paucity of genomic resources, and considerations regarding the host ranges of different species.

Effects of the Incubation Period of Pleurotus ostreatus on the Chemical Composition and Nutrient Availability of Solid-State-Fermented Corn Stover.

The current study aimed to optimize and improve the feeding value of Pleurotus ostreatus-fermented corn stover by evaluating the effects of five solid-state fermentation times and three in vitro fermentation periods on the chemical composition, dry matter disappearance (DMD), microbial mass and volatile fatty acid (VFA) production of treated and untreated corn stover. The study utilized a 3 × 5 factorial design, with eight replicates per treatment. Dry matter, crude protein (CP), ash and non-fiber carbohydrate (NFC) contents increased quadratically (p < 0.05) with increases in the solid-state fermentation time. Increases of 44.4-59.1%, 20.6-78.6% and 40.5-121% were noted for the CP, ash and NFC contents, respectively. Organic matter, ether extract, neutral detergent fiber and hemicellulose contents decreased quadratically (p < 0.05) across the treatments. Similar trends were noted for DM and fiber disappearance in the treatments. The total gas production and in vitro true dry matter digestibility (IVTDMD) increased quadratically, while microbial mass and in vitro apparent DMD increased in a linear manner. The total VFA, propionate and butyrate contents increased linearly. Both the acetate content and the A:P ratio decreased in a linear manner. The results show that the rumen fermentation pathway favors the production of propionate, with increases in propionate production of 7.46 and 8.30% after 2 and 4 wk, respectively. The study showed that a 2 wk period of solid-state fermentation is sufficient to provide a bio-transformed cow-calf feed resource from P. ostreatus-treated corn stover.

Physiological Response of Saccharomyces cerevisiae to Silver Stress.

Silver nanoparticle (AgNP) production and their use as antimicrobial agents is a current area of active research. Biosynthesis is the most sustainable production method, and fungi have become candidates of interest in AgNP production. However, investigations into the physiological responses of fungi due to silver exposure are scanty. This present work utilized two strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (one used in commercial fermentation and a naturally occurring strain) to determine the physiological consequences of their transient exposure to AgNO3. The assessments were based on studies involving growth curves, minimal inhibitory concentration assays, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging, and inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES). Results indicated (a) the capability of S. cerevisiae to produce silver nanoparticles, even at elevated levels of exposure; (b) strain origin had no significant impact on S. cerevisiae physiological response to AgNO3; and (c) coexposure to copper and silver significantly increased intracellular copper, silver, and calcium in treated yeast cells. In addition, electron microscopy and ICP-OES results revealed that both strains internalized silver after exposure, resulting in the shrunken and distorted physical appearance visible on SEM micrographs of treated cells. Though a promising candidate for AgNPs biosynthesis, this study analyzed the effects of transient silver exposure on S. cerevisiae growth physiology and morphology.

The Domestication and Cultivation of Ganoderma (Agaricomycetes) Medicinal Mushroom Species from Nigeria.

Commercial cultivation of Ganoderma species found in Nigeria does not exist. Four Ganoderma isolates (YCT-BKS, YCT-Q2, YCT-Q14, and YCT-Q18) collected in Lagos were tested for mycelia growth and cultivation in sawdust-based substrates. Internal transcribed spacer sequences (ITS1 and ITS4) from three isolates upon a GenBank BLAST search gave DNA sequence closest identities as YCT-BKS and YCT-Q14 = G. mbrekobenum and YCT-Q2 = G. enigmaticum. The mycelia growth rate was highest in YCT-BKS (1.2 cm/day), whereas the other three isolates averaged 0.7 cm/day. On substrate A (sawdust/water hyacinth, 7:3), the time to form primordia was 30 days for YCT-BKS, YCT-Q18, and YCT-Q14. YCT-Q2 and YCT-Q18 formed primordia (27 days) on substrate B (sawdust/sorghum, 3:2). YCT-BKS was the first to produce basidiocarp on substrate A (75 days after inoculation) and had the highest biological efficiency (BE) of 13.4%, followed by YCT-Q18 with BE of 12.1% on substrate B after 99 days. YCT-Q14 produced fruiting bodies after 92 days on substrate A, with a low BE of 7.0%. Results indicate the need to supplement sawdust (substrate C = 100% sawdust) to cultivate the Ganoderma spp. A mixture of sawdust and water hyacinth appears to be the best substrate among those tested. This is the first report on the domestication and cultivation of indigenous isolates of Ganoderma spp. from Nigeria on sawdust and water hyacinth. Water hyacinth is a noxious weed causing major problems in fresh waterways in Nigeria.

Fungal-Metal Interactions: A Review of Toxicity and Homeostasis.

Metal nanoparticles used as antifungals have increased the occurrence of fungal-metal interactions. However, there is a lack of knowledge about how these interactions cause genomic and physiological changes, which can produce fungal superbugs. Despite interest in these interactions, there is limited understanding of resistance mechanisms in most fungi studied until now. We highlight the current knowledge of fungal homeostasis of zinc, copper, iron, manganese, and silver to comprehensively examine associated mechanisms of resistance. Such mechanisms have been widely studied in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, but limited reports exist in filamentous fungi, though they are frequently the subject of nanoparticle biosynthesis and targets of antifungal metals. In most cases, microarray analyses uncovered resistance mechanisms as a response to metal exposure. In yeast, metal resistance is mainly due to the down-regulation of metal ion importers, utilization of metallothionein and metallothionein-like structures, and ion sequestration to the vacuole. In contrast, metal resistance in filamentous fungi heavily relies upon cellular ion export. However, there are instances of resistance that utilized vacuole sequestration, ion metallothionein, and chelator binding, deleting a metal ion importer, and ion storage in hyphal cell walls. In general, resistance to zinc, copper, iron, and manganese is extensively reported in yeast and partially known in filamentous fungi; and silver resistance lacks comprehensive understanding in both.

Solid-state fermentation with Pleurotus ostreatus improves the nutritive value of corn stover-kudzu biomass.

A batch culture technique was used to evaluate dry matter (DM) digestibility of corn stover (Zea mays L.) and kudzu, Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. after solid-state fermentation (SSF) with a white-rot fungus, Pleurotus ostreatus (Jacq. ex Fr.) P. Kumm. Five dietary treatments consisting of mixtures of corn stover (C) and kudzu (K) in varying ratios, (1) 100C:0K, (2) 75C:25K, (3) 50C:50K, (4) 25C:75K, and (5) 0C:100K, were inoculated with P. ostreatus (MBFBL 400) and subjected to SSF for 0, 35, and 77 days. The study was arranged as a 5 × 3 factorial design with 3 replicates. Grass hay was included in the study as a control. Interactions (P < 0.05) between treatments and fermentation time were noted for the fermentation kinetics. Asymptotic gas was the highest (P < 0.05) for 0C:100K and 100C:0K on day 77. Treatment effect (P < 0.001) and treatment × fermentation time interaction (P < 0.001) were noted for in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD). On day 77, treatment 4 had the highest (P < 0.001) IVDMD value, while treatment 1 had the lowest (P < 0.001) IVDMD. There was no difference (P > 0.05) between treatments 3, 5, and control. Numerically, the ranking of their IVDMD values from the highest to the lowest is 4 > 2 > 5 > control >3 > 1. The results show that the treated corn stover and kudzu mixes were comparable with the control, which is good quality hay. This is the first report that demonstrates the potential use of a combined mixture of corn stover and kudzu in ruminant animal feed development.

Effects of Diets Supplemented with Medicinal Mushroom Myceliated Grains on Some Production, Health, and Oxidation Traits of Dairy Ewes.

The beneficial properties of mushrooms' bioactive compounds indicate their potential for use as performance-enhancing natural additives for livestock animals. A study was undertaken to evaluate the effects of diets supplemented with mushroom myceliated grains (MMGs) fed to dairy ewes on intestinal parasite load, milk production, milk fatty acid (FA) composition, and cheese oxidative stability. During an 8-week experimental period, 21 lactating Valle del Belice ewes were divided into 3 groups named MMG20, MMG10, and MMG0. Ewes in each group were fed hay ad libitum and 1.3 kg/day/head of 1 of 3 concentrates with MMGs at 20% (MMG20), 10% (MMG10), or 0% (MMG0). The ewes fed MMG20 had comparable dry matter (DM) and nutrients intake, fewer intestinal parasite infections, a tendency toward higher milk yield, and higher milk casein content (4.78% in MMG20 vs. 4.32% in MMG10 and 4.27% in MMG0; P < 0.05), and they produced cheese with less intense yellow color and a lower secondary lipid oxidation, than the ewes in the MMG10 and MMG0 groups. A higher antioxidant capacity was observed (17.83 mmol Trolox equivalent/kg DM in the MMG20 group vs. 9.97 and 9.18 mmol Trolox equivalent/kg DM in the MMG10 and MMG0 groups, respectively; P < 0.001), suggesting a higher oxidative stability of cheese fat and a probable enrichment of cheese with antioxidant compounds inherent in or induced by MMGs. The inclusion of MMGs in the diet did not affect the amounts of health-promoting polyunsaturated FAs in milk, with the exception of n-3 eicosapentaenoic acid, which was found only in milk from the MMG-treated ewes. These promising results merit further investigation into the potential use of medicinal mushrooms to enhance animal health and production.

Medicinal Mushrooms Supplements Alter Chicken Intestinal Microbiome.

Chicken intestinal microbiomes are known to enhance chicken health and increase production. Identifying natural supplements that shift bacteria communities in favor of beneficial bacteria is critical. This study is a preliminary investigation of the use of medicinal mushrooms nutritional supplements (MSs) including Lentinus edodes, Ganoderma lucidum, Pleurotus ostreatus, and Cordyceps sp. to modulate bacteria in chicken guts. Two-hundred seventy 1-day-old broilers were weighed and randomly assigned to nine different treatments containing MSs. Treatments were assigned according to MS incubation times (14-56 days) and levels of inclusion (5% and 10%) into chicken feed as follows: (1) control MS0; (2) MS1, 14 days, 5%; (3) MS2, 14 days, 10%; (4) MS3, 28 days, 5%; (5) MS4, 28 days, 10%; (6) MS5, 42 days, 5%; (7) MS6, 42 days, 10%; (8) MS7, 56 days, 5%; and (9) MS8, 56 days, 10%. Changes in bacterial community in the stomach (S) and bursa (B) of experimental chickens were assessed using a next-generation sequencing approach. Results indicated that all MSs, except MS1-S (14 days, 5%) and MS4-S (28 days, 10%), completely eliminated Mollicutes, a class of stomach pathogens. MS7 (56 days, 5%) reduced Clostridia 4.8-fold and 3-fold in the stomach and bursa, respectively. The chicken stomach contained far more diverse bacteria than the bursa. Whereas the overall diversity of bacteria decreased with MSs, there was no consistent pattern with incubation time and inclusion level. The abundance of Gammaproteobacteria and unidentified species increased tremendously in both organs, while Bacilli were generally reduced. MS7 (56 days, 5%) showed the most promising result but needs further research. This study high-lights potential benefits from the use of fungal-based supplements as health enhancers in chicken production.

Phylogenetic and Phylogenomic Definition of Rhizopus Species.

Phylogenomic approaches have the potential to improve confidence about the inter-relationships of species in the order Mucorales within the fungal tree of life. Rhizopus species are especially important as plant and animal pathogens and bioindustrial fermenters for food and metabolite production. A dataset of 192 orthologous genes was used to construct a phylogenetic tree of 21 Rhizopus strains, classified into four species isolated from habitats of industrial, medical and environmental importance. The phylogeny indicates that the genus Rhizopus consists of three major clades, with R. microsporus as the basal species and the sister lineage to R. stolonifer and two closely related species R. arrhizus and R. delemar A comparative analysis of the mating type locus across Rhizopus reveals that its structure is flexible even between different species in the same genus, but shows similarities between Rhizopus and other mucoralean fungi. The topology of single-gene phylogenies built for two genes involved in mating is similar to the phylogenomic tree. Comparison of the total length of the genome assemblies showed that genome size varies by as much as threefold within a species and is driven by changes in transposable element copy numbers and genome duplications.