Norovirus as the cause of medically attended gastroenteritis: a hospital-based experience.

Gastroenteritis remains an important cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. With the introduction of vaccines against rotavirus, interest has shifted to understanding the epidemiology of norovirus (NoV). While the importance of NoV in gastroenteritis outbreaks is well established, its role in sporadic gastroenteritis is less known. To better define the role of NoV as a cause of sporadic gastroenteritis we investigated its prevalence in the patients seen in our paediatric hospital with special emphasis on its seasonal and age distribution. Over a 12-month period discarded stool specimens submitted to our paediatric hospital for testing of an infectious aetiology were retrieved and additionally tested for NoV by real-time reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction; demographical and clinical information were also obtained. Overall, NoV was the single most commonly identified pathogen and found in 68/892 (7·6%) total specimens or 68/258 (26%) of pathogen-positive specimens. The highest rates of NoV were detected in children aged 6 months to 4 years (50/332, 15·1%) and presenting between October and January (46/314, 14·7%). NoV has become the main cause of gastroenteritis in our paediatric population.

Compliance issues related to the selection of antibiotic suspensions for children.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the palatability, cost and other compliance issues as variables in the selection of antibiotic suspensions for children. METHODS: Eighty-six physicians and health care personnel randomly sampled amoxicillin (used as a standard for comparison) and 11 other antibiotics, evaluating them in categories of appearance, smell, texture, taste and aftertaste. Overall scoring was then adjusted for cost, duration of therapy and dosing intervals. RESULTS: Overall taste (palatability) ranking of antibiotics, highest to lowest, was as follows: loracarbef, cefdinir, cefixime, azithromycin, ciprofloxacin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, clarithromycin, trimethoprim, amoxicillin/clavulanate, cefpodoxime and cefuroxime. Overall rating of antibiotics was greatly influenced by other compliance variables, in order of their impact: cost; duration of therapy (5 vs. 10 days); and dosing intervals. Cost was not judged to be a major factor by most participants unless antibiotic expense was >$50.00 for treatment of otitis media in our hypothetical 2-year-old, 13-kg child. Taking all variables into consideration, final ranking from highest to lowest was azithromycin, cefdinir, loracarbef, cefixime, amoxicillin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, cefpodoxime, trimethoprim, clarithromycin, ciprofloxacin, cefuroxime and amoxicillin/clavulanate. CONCLUSIONS: Variables related to compliance for families filling antibiotic prescriptions and children taking these products are important in the selection of antimicrobial therapy. Because final assessment is likely to vary considerably among health care personnel, decisions must be made on an individual basis.

Treatment of cutaneous sporotrichosis with one daily dose of potassium iodide.

BACKGROUND: Recommended treatment for cutaneous sporotrichosis consists of a saturated solution of potassium iodide (SSKI) administered in three daily doses (tid). Because compliance with this regimen has been a problem in our previous experience, we evaluated the use of one daily (qd) full dose of SSKI. METHODS: Patients with culture-confirmed cutaneous sporotrichosis were entered in a randomized, nonblinded study to compare the safety and efficacy of qd vs. tid dosage of SSKI. RESULTS: Fifty-seven patients were enrolled to receive either qd (29) or tid (28) SSKI. Three (1 in the qd and 2 in the tid group) were not compliant with the assigned regimen. Side effects were common but mild in both treatment groups (61% in the qd and 42% in the tid group, P = 0.17); treatment had to be discontinued because of side effects in 3 cases (2 in the qd and 1 in the tid group). Overall 26 (89.6%) and 25 (89.2%) of the individuals initially assigned to the qd and tid dosing schedule, respectively, were cured by the treatment. No relapse was detected after 45 days of follow-up. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that a single daily full dose of SSKI appears to be appropriate therapy for cutaneous sporotrichosis; further studies with larger numbers of patients are required.

Epidemiology of sharp object injuries in a children's hospital.

BACKGROUND: Limited data exist on the frequency, circumstances and management of sharp object injuries (SOIs) in pediatric facilities. METHOD: SOIs reported at a large children's hospital during a 2-year period were reviewed. RESULTS: One hundred thirteen SOIs were reported for an average of 6 injuries per 100 employees per year. The greatest number of injuries occurred among nurses (46%) and physicians (23%), but phlebotomists experienced the highest rate (25.5 injuries per 100 full time equivalent employees per year). Most common locations were the patient room (27%), operating room (25%) and intensive care units (17%). Needles accounted for 71% of injuries and procedural devices accounted for 22%. Forty-eight percent of injuries occurred during use of the item, 42% after use or during disposal and 7% after disposal. Twenty percent were associated with loose sharps and 15% with inadvertent patient movement. Only 2 injuries were associated with recapping. Eighty-eight percent of the objects were contaminated with blood or body fluid. Of 88 known source patients 1 tested positive for hepatitis B surface antigen, 2 for hepatitis C virus and none for HIV. One hundred four employees sought treatment: 36 received tetanus vaccine; 14 received hepatitis B vaccine; 9 received hepatitis B immunoglobulin; and 12 received zidovudine. No employee subsequently tested positive for HIV, hepatitis B virus, or hepatitis C virus. CONCLUSIONS: SOIs represent a frequent occurrence among pediatric health care workers. Minimizing the use of sharps, appropriately restraining patients during procedures and promptly disposing of sharp items after use might decrease the frequency of SOIs.

Nutritional status of Helicobacter pylori-infected children in Guatemala as compared with uninfected peers.

The effect of Helicobacter pylori infection on the nutritional status of children in a developing country was studied using a cross-sectional design. Children attending an all-girl public school in inner Guatemala City, Guatemala were evaluated to acquire sociodemographic information and anthropometric nutritional parameters (weight-for-height [WFH] and height-for-age [HFA]), and detect H. pylori-specific serum IgG antibodies. Of 211 children 5-10 years of age, 107 (51%) were infected. The WFH values were not different between infected and uninfected subjects, and were not affected by the sociodemographic variables. The HFA values decreased significantly with age (P = 0.008), lower income (P = 0.04), and H. pylori infection (P = 0.05). When controlled for age and income level, the effect of infection on HFA became nonsignificant (P = 0.30). Helicobacter pylori appeared to have no effect on the nutritional status of the studied children; the differences detected were small and likely due to sociodemographic factors.

Dietary risk factors associated with the transmission of Helicobacter pylori in Lima, Peru.

The factors influencing the risk of acquisition of Helicobacter pylori infection are not well established. One hundred four children (0-17 years of age) requiring an endoscopy for the evaluation of gastrointestinal symptoms had demographic and dietary data collected and biopsy specimens of the gastric antrum stained for the identification of H. pylori. The 52 (50%) infected subjects were significantly older than the uninfected ones with no difference in gender, crowding, source of drinking water, or exposure to domestic animals. Increased prevalence of infection was associated with increased consumption of food from street vendors, and decreased consumption of fruits in the subgroup that denied consuming food from street vendors. No association was found with consumption of fish, chicken, beef, beans, vegetables, rice, cheese, milk, and unboiled water. These findings support the role of food prepared under unhygienic conditions as a probable mechanism of transmission of H. pylori in developing countries.

Diarrheal disease in Peru after the introduction of cholera.

Surveillance was conducted one day each week from December 1992 through May 1993 to determine the clinical features and etiology of diarrhea among a population in a suburban community of Lima, Peru. Patients who had had three or more loose stools during the previous 24 hr were enrolled at a clinic located in the community or at a nearby regional hospital. A total of 143 cases of diarrhea were detected for an overall rate of 7.1 cases per 1,000 population. The enteropathogens isolated were Vibrio cholerae 01 (31%), enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (22%), and Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, and Aeromonas species (10%). Specimens from the remaining cases were negative for enteropathogens. All isolates of V. cholerae were susceptible to tetracycline, doxycycline, nalidixic acid, norfloxacin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, gentamicin, chloramphenicol, and cephalothin. Cases of diarrhea associated with V. cholerae were more common among adults, and more likely to experience severe dehydration and require hospitalization than the non-cholera cases. Data indicated that among the cases diagnosed, V. cholerae and enterotoxigenic E. coli were the more common causes of diarrhea in a suburban community of Lima during the summer season.

Helicobacter pylori infection in children with abdominal ailments in a developing country.

Helicobacter pylori commonly infects children in developing countries. To determine the frequency of this infection and its potential role in specific gastrointestinal entities, all patients requiring upper gastrointestinal endoscopy for the evaluation of abdominal ailments in a gastroenterology practice in Lima, Peru, were evaluated during a 1-year period. Gastric biopsies were obtained for each child and were stained with hematoxylin-eosin and Warthin-Starry stains. Of the 107 evaluable patients (mean age 7.4 years, 58% boys), 52 (49%) were infected. The infection rate increased with older patients (P = 0.004). Children with recurrent abdominal pain (P = 0.04), an endoscopic finding of nodular gastritis (P = 0.007), and a histologic finding of chronic active gastritis (P < 0.0001) were infected more commonly.

Acute gastroenteritis.

Acute gastroenteritis represents a frequent cause of morbidity and mortality among children in the developing world as well as morbidity in the developed world. Despite the large number of potential etiologic agents, management of gastroenteritis is uniform and aimed to prevent the two major complications, dehydration and malnutrition. Current guidelines emphasize the use of oral rehydration and the early reintroduction of age-appropriate foods. These guidelines are reviewed here, the underlying principles discussed, and practical points provided.

A double-blind taste comparison of pediatric antibiotic suspensions.

This study examined the palatability of 22 antimicrobial suspensions by using five independent categories for scoring: appearance, smell, texture, taste, and aftertaste. The likely overall influence on patient compliance was also evaluated. Drugs were compared within their respective classes. The only antibiotics judged to be so unpalatable as to potentially jeopardize compliance were dicloxacillin, oxacillin, erythromycin/sulfisoxazole, and cefpodoxime. Among the penicillins, amoxicillin and ampicillin were preferred. Azithromycin was slightly superior to erythromycin and clarithromycin within the macrolide class. Many cephalosporins were ranked quite high, the best being loracarbef, cefadroxyl, cefprozil, and cefixime.

Escherichia coli and the hemolytic-uremic syndrome.

BACKGROUND: The hemolytic-uremic syndrome (HUS) comprises hemolytic anemia, acute renal failure, and thrombocytopenia. It is the most frequent cause of acute renal failure in children. METHODS: This review is based on an extensive overview of the literature dealing with the HUS in children. RESULTS: HUS is the most common cause of acute renal failure in infants and young children and follows a diarrheal prodrome approximately 90% of the time. Nearly all postdiarrheal cases are caused by enterohemorrhagic E coli infections, in particular serotype O157:H7. Mortality is around 5%, and approximately 50% of survivors manifest some types of sequelae. CONCLUSION: Surveillance and contact investigation are important to control outbreaks, as well as early and aggressive treatment of symptomatic subjects to prevent mortality and severe complications, such as chronic renal disease.

HIV seronegativity in an infant with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.

We report the case of an infant with progressive human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and persistent seronegativity. The child had Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia at 4 months of age and was documented to be HIV-infected by HIV-1 deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) polymerase chain reaction (PCR), but enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and Western blot tests for HIV-1 and HIV-2 specific antibodies remained negative until the infant was 10 months old. This case should increase awareness about the possibility of seronegative HIV infection in infants and stress the fact that in questionable cases, even if the screening serology is negative, additional methods of diagnosis (ie, PCR, viral culture, and p24 antigen) should be considered.

Serologic responses by immunoblot following natural infection with rotavirus serotypes G1 and G4 in children.

Serologic responses to proteins of rotavirus serotypes G1, P1A[8]; G2, P1B[4]; G3, P1A[8]; and G4, P2A[6] were evaluated by immunoblotting paired sera from 17 children with primary rotavirus infection. Ten children were infected with G1, P1A[8]; five with G4, P1A[8]; and two with G4, P2A[6] viruses. Anti-VP6 and anti-VP2 were seen in most responses. Homotypic anti-VP7 developed following G1 and G4 infections in 8 (80%) and 6 (86%) cases, respectively. Homotypic anti-VP4 developed in 9 (60%) cases following P1A[8] infection and in 0 of 2 cases following P2A[6] infection. Heterotypic anti-VP7 appeared against G4 (20%) and G3 (20%) following the 10 G1 infections, and against G3 (86%) and G1 (57%) following the 7 G4 infections. Heterotypic anti-VP4 occurred in only 3 (18%) children. The data show the antigenic predominance of internal proteins VP6 and VP2. Homotypic antibodies developed against VP7 but not against VP4 in most cases, while heterotypic antibodies were infrequent.