Genome-wide association study of resistance to Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection identifies a locus at 10q26.2 in three distinct populations.

The natural history of tuberculosis (TB) is characterized by a large inter-individual outcome variability after exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Specifically, some highly exposed individuals remain resistant to M. tuberculosis infection, as inferred by tuberculin skin test (TST) or interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs). We performed a genome-wide association study of resistance to M. tuberculosis infection in an endemic region of Southern Vietnam. We enrolled household contacts (HHC) of pulmonary TB cases and compared subjects who were negative for both TST and IGRA (n = 185) with infected individuals (n = 353) who were either positive for both TST and IGRA or had a diagnosis of TB. We found a genome-wide significant locus on chromosome 10q26.2 with a cluster of variants associated with strong protection against M. tuberculosis infection (OR = 0.42, 95%CI 0.35-0.49, P = 3.71×10-8, for the genotyped variant rs17155120). The locus was replicated in a French multi-ethnic HHC cohort and a familial admixed cohort from a hyper-endemic area of South Africa, with an overall OR for rs17155120 estimated at 0.50 (95%CI 0.45-0.55, P = 1.26×10-9). The variants are located in intronic regions and upstream of C10orf90, a tumor suppressor gene which encodes an ubiquitin ligase activating the transcription factor p53. In silico analysis showed that the protective alleles were associated with a decreased expression in monocytes of the nearby gene ADAM12 which could lead to an enhanced response of Th17 lymphocytes. Our results reveal a novel locus controlling resistance to M. tuberculosis infection across different populations.

Gene set signature of reversal reaction type I in leprosy patients.

Leprosy reversal reactions type 1 (T1R) are acute immune episodes that affect a subset of leprosy patients and remain a major cause of nerve damage. Little is known about the relative importance of innate versus environmental factors in the pathogenesis of T1R. In a retrospective design, we evaluated innate differences in response to Mycobacterium leprae between healthy individuals and former leprosy patients affected or free of T1R by analyzing the transcriptome response of whole blood to M. leprae sonicate. Validation of results was conducted in a subsequent prospective study. We observed the differential expression of 581 genes upon exposure of whole blood to M. leprae sonicate in the retrospective study. We defined a 44 T1R gene set signature of differentially regulated genes. The majority of the T1R set genes were represented by three functional groups: i) pro-inflammatory regulators; ii) arachidonic acid metabolism mediators; and iii) regulators of anti-inflammation. The validity of the T1R gene set signature was replicated in the prospective arm of the study. The T1R genetic signature encompasses genes encoding pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators of innate immunity. This suggests an innate defect in the regulation of the inflammatory response to M. leprae antigens. The identified T1R gene set represents a critical first step towards a genetic profile of leprosy patients who are at increased risk of T1R and concomitant nerve damage.

Association of TNFSF8 regulatory variants with excessive inflammatory responses but not leprosy per se.

BACKGROUND: Type 1 reactions (T1R) affect a considerable proportion of patients with leprosy. In those with T1R, the host immune response pathologically overcompensates for the actual infectious threat, resulting in nerve damage and permanent disability. Based on the results of a genome-wide association study of leprosy per se, we investigated the TNFSF15 chromosomal region for a possible contribution to susceptibility to T1R. METHODS: We performed a high-resolution association scan of the TNFSF15 locus to evaluate the association with T1R in 2 geographically and ethnically distinct populations: a family-based sample from Vietnam and a case-control sample from Brazil, comprising a total of 1768 subjects. RESULTS: In the Vietnamese sample, 47 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) overlapping TNFSF15 and the adjacent TNFSF8 gene were associated with T1R but not with leprosy. Of the 47 SNPs, 39 were cis-expression quantitative trait loci (cis-eQTL) for TNFSF8 including SNPs located within the TNFSF15 gene. In the Brazilian sample, 18 of these cis-eQTL SNPs overlapping the TNFSF8 gene were validated for association with T1R. CONCLUSIONS: Taken together, these results indicate TNFSF8 and not TNFSF15 as an important T1R susceptibility gene. Our data support the need for infection genetics to go beyond genes for pathogen control to explore genes involved in a commensurate host response.

CUBN and NEBL common variants in the chromosome 10p13 linkage region are associated with multibacillary leprosy in Vietnam.

Leprosy is caused by infection with Mycobacterium leprae and is classified clinically into paucibacillary (PB) or multibacillary (MB) subtypes based on the number of skin lesions and the bacillary index detected in skin smears. We previously identified a major PB susceptibility locus on chromosome region 10p13 in Vietnamese families by linkage analysis. In the current study, we conducted high-density association mapping of the 9.5 Mb linkage peak on chromosome region 10p13 covering 39 genes. Using leprosy per se and leprosy subtypes as phenotypes, we employed 294 nuclear families (303 leprosy cases, 63 % MB, 37 % PB) as a discovery sample and 192 nuclear families (192 cases, 55 % MB, 45 % PB) as a replication sample. Replicated significant association signals were revealed in the genes for cubilin (CUBN) and nebulette (NEBL). In the combined sample, the C allele (frequency 0.26) at CUBN SNP rs10904831 showed association [p = 1 × 10(-5); OR 0.52 (0.38-0.7)] with MB leprosy only. Likewise, allele T (frequency 0.42) at NEBL SNP rs11012461 showed association [p = 4.2 × 10(-5); OR 2.51 (1.6-4)] with MB leprosy only. These associations remained valid for the CUBN signal when taking into account the effective number of tests performed (type I error significance threshold = 2.4 × 10(-5)). We used the results of our analyses to propose a new model for the genetic control of polarization of clinical leprosy.

Linkage disequilibrium pattern and age-at-diagnosis are critical for replicating genetic associations across ethnic groups in leprosy.

One of the persistent challenges of genetic association studies is the replication of genetic marker-disease associations across ethnic groups. Here, we conducted high-density association mapping of PARK2/PACRG SNPs with leprosy and identified 69 SNPs significantly associated with leprosy in 198 single-case Vietnamese leprosy families. A total of 56 associated SNPs localized to the overlapping promoter regions of PARK2/PACRG. For this region, multivariate analysis identified four SNPs belonging to two major SNP bins (rs1333955, rs7744433) and two single SNP bins (rs2023004, rs6936895) that capture the combined statistical evidence (P = 1.1 × 10(-5)) for association among Vietnamese patients. Next, we enrolled a case-control sample of 364 leprosy cases and 370 controls from Northern India. We genotyped all subjects for 149 SNPs that capture >80 % of the genetic variation in the Vietnamese sample and found 24 SNPs significantly associated with leprosy. Multivariate analysis identified three SNPs (rs1333955, rs9356058 and rs2023004) that capture the association with leprosy (P < 10(-8)). Hence, two SNPs (rs1333955 and rs2023004) were replicated by multivariate analysis between both ethnic groups. Marked differences in the linkage disequilibrium pattern explained some of the differences in univariate analysis between the two ethnic groups. In addition, the strength of association for two promoter region SNP bins was significantly stronger among young leprosy patients in the Vietnamese sample. The same trend was observed in the Indian sample, but due to the higher age-at-diagnosis of the patients the age effect was less pronounced.

Chromosome 6q25 is linked to susceptibility to leprosy in a Vietnamese population.

Leprosy, a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae, affects an estimated 700,000 persons each year. Clinically, leprosy can be categorized as paucibacillary or multibacillary disease. These clinical forms develop in persons that are intrinsically susceptible to leprosy per se, that is, leprosy independent of its specific clinical manifestation. We report here on a genome-wide search for loci controlling susceptibility to leprosy per se in a panel of 86 families including 205 siblings affected with leprosy from Southern Vietnam. Using model-free linkage analysis, we found significant evidence for a susceptibility gene on chromosome region 6q25 (maximum likelihood binomial (MLB) lod score 4.31; P = 5 x 10(-6)). We confirmed this by family-based association analysis in an independent panel of 208 Vietnamese leprosy simplex families. Of seven microsatellite markers underlying the linkage peak, alleles of two markers (D6S1035 and D6S305) showed strong evidence for association with leprosy (P = 6.7 x 10(-4) and P = 5.9 x 10(-5), respectively).

Crohn's disease susceptibility genes are associated with leprosy in the Vietnamese population.

A genomewide association study in Chinese patients with leprosy detected association signals in 16 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) belonging to 6 loci, of which 4 are related to the NOD2 signaling pathway and are Crohn's disease susceptibility loci. Here, we studied these 16 SNPs as potential leprosy susceptibility factors in 474 Vietnamese leprosy simplex families. We replicated SNPs at HLA-DR-DQ, RIPK2, CCDC122-LACC1, and NOD2 as leprosy susceptibility factors in Vietnam. These results validated the striking overlap in the genetic control of Crohn's disease and leprosy.

Human leukocyte antigen class I region single-nucleotide polymorphisms are associated with leprosy susceptibility in Vietnam and India.

Experimental evidence suggested the existence of unidentified leprosy susceptibility loci in the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) complex. To identify such genetic risk factors, a high-density association scan of a 1.9-mega-base (Mb) region in the HLA complex was performed. Among 682 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 59 were associated with leprosy (P <.01) in 198 Vietnamese single-case leprosy families. Genotyping of these SNPs in an independent sample of 292 Vietnamese single-case leprosy families replicated the association of 12 SNPs (P <.01). Multivariate analysis of these 12 SNPs showed that the association information could be captured by 2 intergenic HLA class I region SNPs (P = 9.4 × 10⁻9)-rs2394885 and rs2922997 (marginal multivariate P = 2.1 × 10⁻7 and P = .0016, respectively). SNP rs2394885 tagged the HLA-C*15:05 allele in the Vietnamese population. The identical associations were validated in a third sample of 364 patients with leprosy and 371 control subjects from North India. These results implicated class I alleles in leprosy pathogenesis.

Genetic and functional analysis of common MRC1 exon 7 polymorphisms in leprosy susceptibility.

The chromosomal region 10p13 has been linked to paucibacillary leprosy in two independent studies. The MRC1 gene, encoding the human mannose receptor (MR), is located in the 10p13 region and non-synonymous SNPs in exon 7 of the gene have been suggested as leprosy susceptibility factors. We determined that G396S is the only non-synonymous exon 7-encoded polymorphism in 396 unrelated Vietnamese subjects. This SNP was genotyped in 490 simplex and 90 multiplex leprosy families comprising 704 patients (47% paucibacillary; 53% multibacillary). We observed significant under-transmission of the serine allele of the G396S polymorphism with leprosy per se (P = 0.036) and multibacillary leprosy (P = 0.034). In a sample of 384 Brazilian leprosy cases (51% paucibacillary; 49% multibacillary) and 399 healthy controls, we observed significant association of the glycine allele of the G396S polymorphism with leprosy per se (P = 0.016) and multibacillary leprosy (P = 0.023). In addition, we observed a significant association of exon 7 encoded amino acid haplotypes with leprosy per se (P = 0.012) and multibacillary leprosy (P = 0.004). Next, we tested HEK293 cells over-expressing MR constructs (293-MR) with three exon 7 haplotypes of MRC1 for their ability to bind and internalize ovalbumin and zymosan, two classical MR ligands. No difference in uptake was measured between the variants. In addition, 293-MR failed to bind and internalize viable Mycobacterium leprae and BCG. We propose that the MR-M. leprae interaction is modulated by an accessory host molecule of unknown identity.

A Missense LRRK2 Variant Is a Risk Factor for Excessive Inflammatory Responses in Leprosy.

BACKGROUND: Depending on the epidemiological setting, a variable proportion of leprosy patients will suffer from excessive pro-inflammatory responses, termed type-1 reactions (T1R). The LRRK2 gene encodes a multi-functional protein that has been shown to modulate pro-inflammatory responses. Variants near the LRRK2 gene have been associated with leprosy in some but not in other studies. We hypothesized that LRRK2 was a T1R susceptibility gene and that inconsistent association results might reflect different proportions of patients with T1R in the different sample settings. Hence, we evaluated the association of LRRK2 variants with T1R susceptibility. METHODOLOGY: An association scan of the LRRK2 locus was performed using 156 single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Evidence of association was evaluated in two family-based samples: A set of T1R-affected and a second set of T1R-free families. Only SNPs significant for T1R-affected families with significant evidence of heterogeneity relative to T1R-free families were considered T1R-specific. An expression quantitative trait locus (eQTL) analysis was applied to evaluate the impact of T1R-specific SNPs on LRRK2 gene transcriptional levels. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A total of 18 T1R-specific variants organized in four bins were detected. The core SNP capturing the T1R association was the LRRK2 missense variant M2397T (rs3761863) that affects LRRK2 protein turnover. Additionally, a bin of nine SNPs associated with T1R were eQTLs for LRRK2 in unstimulated whole blood cells but not after exposure to Mycobacterium leprae antigen. SIGNIFICANCE: The results support a preferential association of LRRK2 variants with T1R. LRRK2 involvement in T1R is likely due to a pathological pro-inflammatory loop modulated by LRRK2 availability. Interestingly, the M2397T variant was reported in association with Crohn's disease with the same risk allele as in T1R suggesting common inflammatory mechanism in these two distinct diseases.

Pauci- and Multibacillary Leprosy: Two Distinct, Genetically Neglected Diseases.

After sustained exposure to Mycobacterium leprae, only a subset of exposed individuals develops clinical leprosy. Moreover, leprosy patients show a wide spectrum of clinical manifestations that extend from the paucibacillary (PB) to the multibacillary (MB) form of the disease. This "polarization" of leprosy has long been a major focus of investigation for immunologists because of the different immune response in these two forms. But while leprosy per se has been shown to be under tight human genetic control, few epidemiological or genetic studies have focused on leprosy subtypes. Using PubMed, we collected available data in English on the epidemiology of leprosy polarization and the possible role of human genetics in its pathophysiology until September 2015. At the genetic level, we assembled a list of 28 genes from the literature that are associated with leprosy subtypes or implicated in the polarization process. Our bibliographical search revealed that improved study designs are needed to identify genes associated with leprosy polarization. Future investigations should not be restricted to a subanalysis of leprosy per se studies but should instead contrast MB to PB individuals. We show the latter approach to be the most powerful design for the identification of genetic polarization determinants. Finally, we bring to light the important resource represented by the nine-banded armadillo model, a unique animal model for leprosy.

PARK2 mediates interleukin 6 and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 production by human macrophages.

Leprosy is a persistent infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae that still affects over 200,000 new patients annually. The host genetic background is an important risk factor for leprosy susceptibility and the PARK2 gene is a replicated leprosy susceptibility candidate gene. The protein product of PARK2, Parkin, is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that is involved in the development of various forms of Parkinsonism. The human macrophage is both a natural host cell of M. leprae as well as a primary mediator of natural immune defenses, in part by secreting important pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Here, we report that down-regulation of Parkin in THP-1 macrophages, human monocyte-derived macrophages and human Schwann cells resulted in a consistent and specific decrease in interleukin-6 (IL-6) and monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1/CCL2) production in response to mycobacteria or LPS. Interestingly, production of IL-6 at 6 hours by THP-1 cells stimulated with live M. leprae and M. bovis BCG was dependent on pretreatment with 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3) (VD). Parkin knockdown in VD-treated cells blocked IL-6 induction by mycobacteria. However, IκB-α phosphorylation and levels of IκB-ξ, a nuclear protein required for IL-6 expression, were not affected by Parkin silencing. Phosphorylation of MAPK ERK1/2 and p38 was unaffected by Parkin silencing while JNK activation was promoted but did not explain the altered cytokine production. In a final set of experiments we found that genetic risk factors of leprosy located in the PARK2 promoter region were significantly correlated with M. leprae sonicate triggered CCL2 and IL6 transcript levels in whole blood assays. These results associated genetically controlled changes in the production of MCP-1/CCL2 and IL-6 with known leprosy susceptibility factors.

Genomewide linkage analysis of the granulomatous mitsuda reaction implicates chromosomal regions 2q35 and 17q21.

The Mitsuda reaction, a delayed granulomatous skin reaction elicited by the intradermal injection of heat-killed Mycobacterium leprae, is an in vivo test reflecting the ability to generate an immune granuloma after sensitization by diverse mycobacterial infections. Accumulating evidence for the genetic control of the Mitsuda reaction has been reported. We performed a genomewide linkage scan for the quantitative Mitsuda reaction in 19 large families from Vietnam with a history of leprosy (114 offspring). Suggestive linkage was found at chromosomal regions 2q35 (P = 9 x 10(-4) at the SLC11A1 locus) and 17q21-25 (P = 8 x 10(-4)). Interestingly, these 2 regions have been previously linked to mycobacterial infection and other granulomatous diseases.

A recessive major gene controls the mitsuda reaction in a region endemic for leprosy.

BACKGROUND: Leprosy is a chronic infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium leprae. The Mitsuda reaction is a delayed granulomatous skin reaction elicited by intradermal injection of heat-killed M. leprae. Interestingly, results of the Mitsuda test are positive in the majority of individuals, even in areas not endemic for M. leprae. Like leprosy, the Mitsuda reaction is thought to be genetically controlled, but its mode of inheritance is unknown, although the role of the NRAMP1 gene has previously been reported. METHODS: We conducted a segregation analysis of quantitative Mitsuda reactivity in 168 Vietnamese nuclear families ascertained through patients with leprosy. RESULTS: We found strong evidence (P<10-9) for a major gene controlling the Mitsuda reaction independently of leprosy clinical status. Subsequent linkage analysis showed that this major gene was distinct from NRAMP1. Under the major-gene model, approximately 12% of individuals are homozygous for the recessive predisposing allele and are predicted to display high levels of Mitsuda reactivity (mean, approximately 10 mm, versus 5 mm in other individuals). CONCLUSION: We provide evidence that the Mitsuda reaction is controlled by a major gene. Our study paves the way for the identification of this gene and should provide novel insight into the mechanisms involved in granuloma formation, especially in M. leprae infection.