Efficient link prediction in the protein-protein interaction network using topological information in a generative adversarial network machine learning model.

BACKGROUND: The investigation of possible interactions between two proteins in intracellular signaling is an expensive and laborious procedure in the wet-lab, therefore, several in silico approaches have been implemented to narrow down the candidates for future experimental validations. Reformulating the problem in the field of network theory, the set of proteins can be represented as the nodes of a network, while the interactions between them as the edges. The resulting protein-protein interaction (PPI) network enables the use of link prediction techniques in order to discover new probable connections. Therefore, here we aimed to offer a novel approach to the link prediction task in PPI networks, utilizing a generative machine learning model. RESULTS: We created a tool that consists of two modules, the data processing framework and the machine learning model. As data processing, we used a modified breadth-first search algorithm to traverse the network and extract induced subgraphs, which served as image-like input data for our model. As machine learning, an image-to-image translation inspired conditional generative adversarial network (cGAN) model utilizing Wasserstein distance-based loss improved with gradient penalty was used, taking the combined representation from the data processing as input, and training the generator to predict the probable unknown edges in the provided induced subgraphs. Our link prediction tool was evaluated on the protein-protein interaction networks of five different species from the STRING database by calculating the area under the receiver operating characteristic, the precision-recall curves and the normalized discounted cumulative gain (AUROC, AUPRC, NDCG, respectively). Test runs yielded the averaged results of AUROC = 0.915, AUPRC = 0.176 and NDCG = 0.763 on all investigated species. CONCLUSION: We developed a software for the purpose of link prediction in PPI networks utilizing machine learning. The evaluation of our software serves as the first demonstration that a cGAN model, conditioned on raw topological features of the PPI network, is an applicable solution for the PPI prediction problem without requiring often unavailable molecular node attributes. The corresponding scripts are available at https://github.com/semmelweis-pharmacology/ppi_pred .

Mitigating off-target effects of small RNAs: conventional approaches, network theory and artificial intelligence.

Three types of highly promising small RNA therapeutics, namely, small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), microRNAs (miRNAs) and the RNA subtype of antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), offer advantages over small-molecule drugs. These small RNAs can target any gene product, opening up new avenues of effective and safe therapeutic approaches for a wide range of diseases. In preclinical research, synthetic small RNAs play an essential role in the investigation of physiological and pathological pathways as silencers of specific genes, facilitating discovery and validation of drug targets in different conditions. Off-target effects of small RNAs, however, could make it difficult to interpret experimental results in the preclinical phase and may contribute to adverse events of small RNA therapeutics. Out of the two major types of off-target effects we focused on the hybridization-dependent, especially on the miRNA-like off-target effects. Our main aim was to discuss several approaches, including sequence design, chemical modifications and target prediction, to reduce hybridization-dependent off-target effects that should be considered even at the early development phase of small RNA therapy. Because there is no standard way of predicting hybridization-dependent off-target effects, this review provides an overview of all major state-of-the-art computational methods and proposes new approaches, such as the possible inclusion of network theory and artificial intelligence (AI) in the prediction workflows. Case studies and a concise survey of experimental methods for validating in silico predictions are also presented. These methods could contribute to interpret experimental results, to minimize off-target effects and hopefully to avoid off-target-related adverse events of small RNA therapeutics.

Assessment of community efforts to advance network-based prediction of protein-protein interactions.

Comprehensive understanding of the human protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, aka the human interactome, can provide important insights into the molecular mechanisms of complex biological processes and diseases. Despite the remarkable experimental efforts undertaken to date to determine the structure of the human interactome, many PPIs remain unmapped. Computational approaches, especially network-based methods, can facilitate the identification of previously uncharacterized PPIs. Many such methods have been proposed. Yet, a systematic evaluation of existing network-based methods in predicting PPIs is still lacking. Here, we report community efforts initiated by the International Network Medicine Consortium to benchmark the ability of 26 representative network-based methods to predict PPIs across six different interactomes of four different organisms: A. thaliana, C. elegans, S. cerevisiae, and H. sapiens. Through extensive computational and experimental validations, we found that advanced similarity-based methods, which leverage the underlying network characteristics of PPIs, show superior performance over other general link prediction methods in the interactomes we considered.

Network Analysis for Signal Detection in Spontaneous Adverse Event Reporting Database: Application of Network Weighting Normalization to Characterize Cardiovascular Drug Safety.

INTRODUCTION: Signal detection yields confirmed signals in only 2.1%, which imposes a heavy burden on the pharmacovigilance system in the European Union. OBJECTIVES: We aimed to develop a network theoretical metric to increase the confirmed signal ratio of individual case safety report (ICSR) networks. METHODS: ICSRs of five cardiovascular adverse events were requested from EudraVigilance. We developed Vigilace™, a web-based application to build network representation of ICSRs. Three network-based signal scores, which we termed NEWS (normalized edge weight for signals) scores, were calculated by normalizing the weight of each edge in the report-based weighted network by the weight of the same edge in topological weighted networks. Depending on the third node in topological network edges, we defined full-, adverse event-, and drug-type NEWS scores. Area under the receiver operating characteristic curves (AUROC) were analyzed to compare the reporting odds ratio (ROR) and NEWS scores. RESULTS: Overall, 72,475 ICSRs were accessed from EudraVigilance. Drug-type NEWS (NEWSD) score performed better (DeLong test, p-value <0.05) compared with the ROR in case of four adverse events: acute myocardial infarction (AUROC: 0.856 vs. 0.720), arrhythmia (0.657 vs. 0.614), pulmonary hypertension (0.861 vs. 0.720), and QT prolongation (0.830 vs. 0.749). Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome was excluded due to the lack of reference data. CONCLUSION: This is the first demonstration that report-based weighting normalized by topological weighting of co-reported drugs, which we termed as NEWSD score, can perform better compared with the ROR. An application was developed for ICSR network analysis that facilitates the calculation of this score.