Range of invasive meningococcal disease sequelae and health economic application - a systematic and clinical review.

BACKGROUND: Invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) is uncommon, life-threatening, with many diverse sequelae. The aims were to: 1) comprehensively characterise the sequelae; 2) have a systematic application for sequelae impact in economic evaluation (EE). METHODS: Sequelae categorised as physical/neurological or psychological/behavioural were identified from a systematic review of IMD observational studies (OS) and EEs in high-income countries (published 2001-2020). A comprehensive map and EE-relevant list, respectively, included physical/neurological sequelae reported in ≥2OS and ≥ 2OS + 2EE (≥1OS and ≥ 1OS + 1EE for psychological/behavioural). Sequelae proportions were selected from the highest quality studies reporting most sequelae. Three medical experts independently evaluated the clinical impact of findings. RESULTS: Sixty-Six OS and 34 EE reported IMD sequelae. The comprehensive map included 44 sequelae (30 physical/neurological, 14 psychological/behavioural), of which 18 (14 physical/neurological and 4 psychological/behavioural) were EE-relevant. Experts validated the study and identified gaps due to limited evidence, underreporting of psychological/behavioural sequelae in survivors/their families, and occurrence of multiple sequelae in the acute phase and long-term. CONCLUSIONS: The considerable burden of IMD sequelae on survivors and their families is potentially underestimated in EE, due to underreporting and poorly-defined subtle sequelae. When assessing IMD burden and potential interventions e.g., vaccination, sequelae range and duration, underreporting, and indirect burden on dependents should be considered.

Seasonal influenza vaccination in patients with COPD: a systematic literature review.

BACKGROUND: Influenza is a frequent cause of exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Exacerbations are associated with worsening of the airflow obstruction, hospitalisation, reduced quality of life, disease progression, death, and ultimately, substantial healthcare-related costs. Despite longstanding recommendations to vaccinate vulnerable high-risk groups against seasonal influenza, including patients with COPD, vaccination rates remain sub-optimal in this population. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review to summarise current evidence from randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and observational studies on the immunogenicity, safety, efficacy, and effectiveness of seasonal influenza vaccination in patients with COPD. The selection of relevant articles was based on a three-step selection procedure according to predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. The search yielded 650 unique hits of which 48 eligible articles were screened in full-text. RESULTS: Seventeen articles describing 13 different studies were found to be pertinent to this review. Results of four RCTs and one observational study demonstrate that seasonal influenza vaccination is immunogenic in patients with COPD. Two studies assessed the occurrence of COPD exacerbations 14 days after influenza vaccination and found no evidence of an increased risk of exacerbation. Three RCTs showed no significant difference in the occurrence of systemic effects between groups receiving influenza vaccine or placebo. Six out of seven studies on vaccine efficacy or effectiveness indicated long-term benefits of seasonal influenza vaccination, such as reduced number of exacerbations, reduced hospitalisations and outpatient visits, and decreased all-cause and respiratory mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Additional large and well-designed observational studies would contribute to understanding the impact of disease severity and patient characteristics on the response to influenza vaccination. Overall, the evidence supports a positive benefit-risk ratio for seasonal influenza vaccination in patients with COPD, and supports current vaccination recommendations in this population.

The Diverse Spectrum of Invasive Meningococcal Disease in Pediatric and Adolescent Patients: Narrative Review of Cases and Case Series.

INTRODUCTION: Invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) is a potentially life-threatening disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis infection. We reviewed case reports of IMD from newborns, infants, children, and adolescents, and described the real-life clinical presentations, diagnoses, treatment paradigms, and clinical outcomes. METHODS: PubMed and Embase were searched for IMD case reports on patients aged ≤ 19 years published from January 2011 to March 2023 (search terms "Neisseria meningitidis" or "invasive meningococcal disease", and "infant", "children", "paediatric", pediatric", or "adolescent"). RESULTS: We identified 97 publications reporting 184 cases of IMD, including 25 cases with a fatal outcome. Most cases were in adolescents aged 13-19 years (34.2%), followed by children aged 1-5 years (27.6%), children aged 6-12 years (17.1%), infants aged 1-12 months (17.1%), and neonates (3.9%). The most common disease-causing serogroups were W (40.2%), B (31.7%), and C (10.4%). Serogroup W was the most common serogroup in adolescents (17.2%), and serogroup B was the most common in the other age groups, including children aged 1-5 years (11.5%). The most common clinical presentations were meningitis (46.6%) and sepsis (36.8%). CONCLUSIONS: IMD continues to pose a threat to the health of children and adolescents. While this review was limited to case reports and is not reflective of global epidemiology, adolescents represented the largest group with IMD. Additionally, nearly half of the patients who died were adolescents, emphasizing the importance of monitoring and vaccination in this age group. Different infecting serogroups were predominant in different age groups, highlighting the usefulness of multivalent vaccines to provide the broadest possible protection against IMD. Overall, this review provides useful insights into real-life clinical presentations, treatment paradigms, diagnoses, and clinical outcomes to help clinicians diagnose, treat, and, ultimately, protect patients from this devastating disease.

Changing patterns of invasive meningococcal disease and future immunization strategies.

Invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) is a life-threatening disease caused by Neisseria meningitidis and has high mortality rates. Survivors often exhibit long-term sequelae and reduced life expectancy. Disease incidence is highest in infants and toddlers, with a resurgence of cases in adolescents and older adults (>50 years of age). Substantial heterogeneity exists in the recommendations of meningococcal vaccines included in National Immunization Programs (NIPs) across countries. Recommendations are usually based on infant/toddler immunization, with some countries recommending immunization only for toddlers. While existing recommendations have led to a reduced incidence of IMD in children <5 years of age, there has been an increase in cases among adolescents and older adults. Currently, older adults are not included in the recommendations. The higher healthcare burden and the economic costs associated with IMD in these age groups suggest that it is time to consider including adolescents and older adults in NIPs to protect against IMD caused by the five most prevalent serogroups. Currently, the lack of equity of access to vaccines in the immunization programs is a glaring gap in the betterment of public health, and a broader meningococcal strategy is recommended to provide optimal protection for all age groups.

Invasive meningococcal diseases, which include meningitis, are rare and unpredictable, but may lead to very important/debilitating long-term sequelae, death, or reduced life expectancy. Vaccination is the best way to prevent them. Vaccination recommendations provided by national health agencies usually target infants (or toddlers), children, and adolescents. Older adults are only considered when they are at risk for invasive meningococcal diseases.Here, we analyzed the vaccination strategies for invasive meningococcal disease in different countries to identify the gaps preventing access to vaccination.We found that recommendations for invasive meningococcal disease vaccination vary markedly among countries. Vaccination programs target mainly infants and toddlers, and they successfully reduced the number of cases among them. However, we also observed that the disease now affects more adults. We also found that the lack of equitable access to vaccination prevents broader meningococcal protection for persons of any age.With this analysis, we suggest improving the current meningococcal vaccination guidelines to also provide adolescents and healthy older adults with access to vaccines. Promoting equal access to vaccination for everyone could reduce the impact on the healthcare system and help reduce social disparity. In order to do so, we advise universal recommendation of meningococcal vaccines, which would provide clear guidance to health-care practitioners.

Determinants of Meningococcal Vaccination Coverage and Adherence: A Targeted Literature Review Supporting a 16-year-old Healthcare Visit.

We conducted a targeted literature review to understand the determinants of meningococcal serogroups A, C, W, and Y (MenACWY) and meningococcal serogroup B (MenB) vaccination coverage and adherence to vaccination schedules in the USA, and to identify evidence to support improvement of MenACWY and MenB vaccination coverage and adherence in older adolescents. Sources published since 2011 were considered, with sources published since 2015 given preference. Out of 2355 citations screened, 47 (46 studies) were selected for inclusion. Determinants of coverage and adherence ranging from patient-level sociodemographic factors to policy-level factors were identified. Four determinants identified were associated with improved coverage and adherence: (1) well-child, preventive, or vaccination-only appointments (particularly for older adolescents); (2) provider-initiated, provider-driven vaccine recommendations; (3) provider education about meningococcal disease and vaccine recommendations; and (4) state-level school-entry immunization policies. This robust review of the literature sheds light on the continued low MenACWY and MenB vaccination coverage and adherence among older adolescents (16-23 years of age) compared with that of younger adolescents (11-15 years of age) in the USA. The evidence supports a renewed call to action by local and national health authorities and medical organizations urging healthcare professionals to implement a healthcare visit for 16-year-olds and focus on vaccination as a key component of the visit.

Certain meningococcal vaccines are recommended for young people (ages 11­23) in the USA at specific ages. We analyzed scientific studies to understand how many young people in the USA have received meningococcal vaccines and whether they received them at the recommended ages. We found that a low proportion of young people age 16 or older have received appropriate meningococcal vaccination, compared with those under age 16. We looked at reasons why this might be the case and identified actions that could be taken to increase the proportion of young people age 16 or older who receive appropriate meningococcal vaccination. Overall, the information found confirms the importance of encouraging healthcare professionals to establish routine appointments with 16-year-olds, during which they can administer recommended, age-appropriate vaccines.

Challenges in synthesis of real-world vaccine effects on meningococcal serogroup B disease for 4CMenB vaccine post-licensure effectiveness studies: A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Real-world studies on vaccine effects are diverse in terms of objectives, study setting and design, data type and scope, and analysis methods. In this review, we describe and discuss four-component meningococcal serogroup B vaccine (4CMenB vaccine, Bexsero) real-world studies with the aim of synthesizing their findings with application of standard methods. METHODS: We performed a systematic literature review of all real-world studies on 4CMenB vaccine effects on meningococcal serogroup B disease, with no restriction for population age, vaccination schedule and/or type of vaccine effect evaluated (vaccine effectiveness [VE] and vaccine impact [VI] outcomes) published since its licensure in 2013 (from January 2014 until July 2021) in PubMed, Cochrane and the grey literature. We then aimed to synthesize the findings of the identified studies through application of standard synthesis methods. RESULTS: According to reported criteria we retrieved five studies presenting estimates on 4CMenB vaccine effectiveness and impact. These studies showed great diversity in population, vaccination schedule and analysis methods mainly due to diversity in vaccine strategies and recommendations in the study settings. Directed by this diversity, no quantitative pooling methods to synthesize findings could be applied; instead we descriptively assessed study methods. We report VE estimates ranging from 59% to 94% and VI estimates ranging from 31% to 75%, representing diverse age groups, vaccination schedules and analysis methods. CONCLUSION: Both vaccine outcomes showed real-life effectiveness of 4CMenB vaccine despite differences in study methodologies and vaccination strategies. Based on appraisal of study methods, we highlighted the need for an adapted tool which facilitates synthesis of heterogenic real-world vaccine studies when quantitative pooling methods are not applicable.

Understanding barriers to vaccination against invasive meningococcal disease: a survey of the knowledge gap and potential solutions.

INTRODUCTION: Invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) is a leading cause of life-threatening bacterial meningitis and septicemia. Evidence points to a knowledge gap among parents, teenagers, and healthcare providers (HCPs) regarding IMD and available vaccines, including those against the highly prevalent serogroup B. AREAS COVERED: An online survey was conducted between March 27 and 12 April 2019, to gather insights into the knowledge that parents/guardians have about IMD vaccines. The children were aged 2 months to 10 years in Australia, Brazil, Germany, Greece, Italy, and Spain, 5-20 years in the UK, and 16-23 years in the USA. The findings were discussed in the context of the available literature and solutions were proposed to minimize the knowledge gap and the barriers to vaccination against IMD. EXPERT OPINION: The survey demonstrated that parents have a good understanding of IMD but a limited understanding of the different serogroups and vaccines. The available literature highlighted multiple barriers to IMD vaccine uptake; these may be reduced through education of HCPs, clear recommendations to parents by HCPs, the use of technology, and disease-awareness initiatives that engage parents through physical and digital channels. Further studies are warranted to assess the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on IMD vaccination.

A comprehensive review of clinical and real-world safety data for the four-component serogroup B meningococcal vaccine (4CMenB).

INTRODUCTION: Neisseria meningitidis causes invasive meningococcal disease and, globally, significant morbidity, with serogroup B (MenB) being the most common cause of endemic disease and outbreaks in several regions. Extensive use of the four-component serogroup B meningococcal vaccine (4CMenB; Bexsero, GSK) and its inclusion in immunization programs in several countries have generated substantial safety data during the 9 years since its first authorization in 2013. AREAS COVERED: 4CMenB safety data from clinical trials and post-marketing surveillance studies (2011 to 2022), and spontaneously reported adverse events of medical interest from the GSK global safety database. We discuss these safety findings in relation to the benefit of 4CMenB vaccination and implications for further enhancing vaccine confidence. EXPERT OPINION: 4CMenB has been consistently well tolerated across clinical trials and post-licensure surveillance studies, despite a higher incidence of fever reported in infants than with other pediatric vaccines. Surveillance data have not identified any significant safety issues, consistent with an acceptable safety profile of 4CMenB. These findings highlight the need to balance the risk of relatively common, transient, post-immunization fever with the benefit of affording protection that reduces the risk of uncommon but potentially fatal meningococcal infection.

The four-component serogroup B meningococcal vaccine 4CMenB (Bexsero®, GSK) was licensed in 2013 and has acquired substantial safety evidence through clinical trial and real-world data. Availability of real-world and clinical 4CMenB safety evidence is important to help address vaccination hesitancy. This comprehensive review of safety data, from 9 years of 4CMenB use including recent data from the real world, shows no significant safety issues in a variety of age groups. Data show that transient fever may occur after vaccination. Invasive meningococcal disease, although rare, can be life-threatening. Abundant safety data from this review can help reassure individuals and healthcare providers on the use of 4CMenB.

Real-world implementation of 4-component meningococcal serogroup B vaccine (4CMenB): implications for clinical practices.

INTRODUCTION: Invasive meningococcal disease due to serogroup B (MenB) is an uncommon but life-threatening disease. The 4-component meningococcal serogroup B vaccine (4CMenB) is the only MenB vaccine with real-world evidence supporting a reduction in incidence without safety concerns. AREAS COVERED: We reviewed recommendations and real-world implementation of 4CMenB in National Immunization Programs (NIPs) and implications for clinical practice through a non-systematic literature search. EXPERT OPINION: 4CMenB is registered in 45 countries, 33 of which recommend it clinically: nine for infants, children, adolescents, and high-risk groups; 11 for infants and high-risk groups; the US for individuals aged 16-23 years and high-risk groups; two for infants; 10 for high-risk groups and/or outbreak control. Dosing schedule varies between countries. To date, nine countries include 4CMenB in their NIP: UK, Andorra, Ireland, Italy, San Marino, Lithuania, Malta, Czech Republic, and Portugal. Australia funds it for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children under 2 years, and high-risk individuals. South Australia funds for all infants and adolescents. Many factors influenced introduction into NIPs: disease burden, public awareness, cost-effectiveness, prior meningococcal vaccination programs, efficacy and safety profile. In the future, more countries might consider including 4CMenB in their NIP due to growing evidence on effectiveness and safety.

Public health perspective of a pentavalent meningococcal vaccine combining antigens of MenACWY-CRM and 4CMenB.

OBJECTIVES: Invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) is a life-threatening disease that can rapidly progress to death or leave survivors with severe, life-long sequelae. Five meningococcal serogroups (A, B, C, W and Y) account for nearly all IMD. Meningococcal serogroup distribution fluctuates over time across the world and age groups. Here, we consider the potential public health impact of a pentavalent MenABCWY vaccine developed to help further control meningococcal disease and improve immunisation rates. RESULTS: The GSK MenABCWY vaccine combines the antigenic components of MenACWY-CRM (Menveo®) and 4CMenB (Bexsero®), building on a wide body of clinical experience and real-world evidence. Both approved vaccines have acceptable safety profiles, demonstrate immunogenicity, and are broadly used, including in national immunisation programmes in several countries. Since the advent of quadrivalent vaccines, public health in relation to IMD has improved, with a decline in the overall incidence of IMD and an increase in vaccine coverage. CONCLUSION: A pentavalent MenABCWY has the potential to provide further public health benefits through practical, broad IMD protection programmes encompassing serogroups A, B, C, W and Y, and is currently in late-stage development.

A Decade of Fighting Invasive Meningococcal Disease: A Narrative Review of Clinical and Real-World Experience with the MenACWY-CRM Conjugate Vaccine.

The quadrivalent A, C, W and Y meningococcal vaccine conjugated to nontoxic mutant of diphtheria toxin (MenACWY-CRM) has been licensed since 2010 for the prevention of invasive meningococcal disease (IMD), an uncommon but life-threatening condition. Here, we summarize the experience accrued with MenACWY-CRM during the first decade since its licensure, by providing an overview of clinical trials investigating the safety, immunogenicity and co-administration of MenACWY-CRM with other vaccines as well as presenting real-world evidence regarding the impact of MenACWY-CRM vaccination on carriage and IMD incidence. MenACWY-CRM has demonstrated an acceptable clinical safety profile across a wide range of age groups; no safety concerns have been reported in special populations, such as immunocompromised infants and toddlers, or pregnant women. MenACWY-CRM has also been proven to be immunogenic in various age groups and geographic settings, and a booster dose has been shown to elicit strong anamnestic responses in all studied populations, irrespective of the vaccine used for priming. With no clinically relevant vaccine interactions reported, MenACWY-CRM is being conveniently integrated into existing vaccination programs for various age and risk groups; this possibility of co-administration helps improving vaccine coverage and streamlining the healthcare process of fighting preventable infectious diseases. Vaccination of adolescents and adults has been proven to reduce nasopharyngeal carriage for serogroups C, W and Y, which is an important element in reducing transmission. Real-world evidence indicates that MenACWY-CRM can reduce IMD incidence even in high-exposure groups. When combined with vaccines against serogroup B meningococci, MenACWY-CRM can offer protection against five of the most common serogroups responsible for IMD, which is an important advantage in the continuously evolving landscape of meningococcal serogroup epidemiology.

Invasive meningococcal disease is an uncommon but life-threatening infection that appears as meningitis and/or sepsis. It is caused by Neisseria meningitidis, a bacteria commonly present in the throat or nose. Vaccination with MenACWY-CRM (Menveo, GSK) helps to prevent invasive meningococcal disease caused by four of the most common N. meningitidis serogroups (A, C, W and Y). This vaccine has been licensed for 10 years: we summarized here all available evidence gathered since the vaccine has been available in general practice, from clinical development to real-world experience. Information gained during clinical trials of MenACWY-CRM confirms that vaccination is well tolerated, has an acceptable safety profile and would induce significant protection when given to individuals of various ages such as infants, toddlers, children, adolescents and adults, and when administered at the same time as routine or traveler vaccinations as well as vaccines against serogroup B meningococci (4CMenB). Vaccination with MenACWY-CRM has been shown to decrease the number of serogroup C, W and Y meningococci found in the nose and throat in adolescents and adults as well as the occurrence of invasive meningococcal disease in a high-exposure population from a real-world setting. MenACWY-CRM can conveniently be integrated into most of the existing vaccination schedules for various age and risk groups. When combined with vaccination against serogroup B meningococci, MenACWY-CRM can contribute to providing protection against five of the most common serogroups responsible for invasive meningococcal disease.

Evolving strategies for meningococcal vaccination in Europe: Overview and key determinants for current and future considerations.

Invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) is a life-threatening, unpredictable condition. Vaccines are available against 5 of the 6 meningococcal serogroups (Men) accounting for nearly all IMD cases worldwide; conjugate monovalent MenC, quadrivalent MenACWY, and protein-based MenB vaccines are commonly used. We provide a comprehensive overview of the evolution of meningococcal vaccination strategies employed in national immunization programmes (NIPs) and their impact on IMD incidence in Europe. A more in-depth description is given for several countries: the United Kingdom (UK), the Netherlands, Greece, Italy, and Ireland. We searched European health authorities' websites and PubMed. Various vaccines and immunization schedules are used in 21 NIPs. Most countries implement MenC vaccination in infants, MenACWY in adolescents, and a growing number, MenB in infants. Only Malta has introduced MenACWY vaccination in infants, and several countries reimburse immunization of toddlers. The UK, Italy, Ireland, Malta, Andorra, and San Marino recommend MenB vaccination in infants and MenACWY vaccination in adolescents, targeting the most prevalent serogroups in the most impacted age groups. Main factors determining new vaccination strategies are fluctuating IMD epidemiology, ease of vaccine implementation, ability to induce herd protection, favorable benefit-risk balance, and acceptable cost-effectiveness. Since 1999, when the UK introduced MenC vaccination, the reduction in IMD incidence has been gradually enhanced as other countries adopted routine meningococcal vaccinations. Meningococcal vaccination strategies in each country are continually adapted to regional epidemiology and national healthcare priorities. Future strategies may include broader coverage vaccines when available (e.g., MenABCWY, MenACWY), depending on prevailing epidemiology.

Cost-utility analysis of increasing uptake of universal seasonal quadrivalent influenza vaccine (QIV) in children aged 6 months and older in Germany.

Seasonal influenza causes many cases and related deaths in Europe annually, despite ongoing vaccination programs for older adults and people at high-risk of complications. Children have the highest risk of infection and play a key role in disease transmission. Our cost-utility analysis, based on a dynamic transmission model, estimated the impact of increasing the current vaccination coverage with inactivated quadrivalent influenza vaccine in Germany to all (healthy and high-risk) children under 5 years of age (40% uptake), or under 18 years (40% uptake), or only high-risk children under 18 years (90% uptake). Eight influenza complications were modeled, hospitalization and death rates were based on age and risk status. All three vaccination strategies provided more health benefits than the existing vaccination situation, reducing influenza cases, complications, hospitalizations and deaths across the entire population. The strategy targeting all children under 5 years was highly cost-effective (€6/quality-adjusted life-year gained, payer perspective). The other strategies were cost saving from the payer and societal perspectives. The vaccination strategy targeting all children under 18 years was estimated to provide the most health benefits (preventing on average 1.66 million cases, 179,000 complications, 14,000 hospitalizations and 3,600 deaths due to influenza annually) and the most cost savings (annually €20.5 million and €731.3 million from payer and societal perspectives, respectively). Our analysis provides policy decision-makers with evidence supporting strategies to expand childhood influenza vaccination, to directly protect children, and indirectly all other unvaccinated age groups, in order to reduce the humanistic and economic burden on healthcare systems and society.

What is the context? Every winter, millions of people in Europe become ill due to influenza (flu), and some need to be hospitalized for complications that can sometimes lead to death.While mainly older adults and people with chronic illness are at higher risk of complications from influenza, children have the highest risk of infection and of transmitting the disease.Current vaccination policies in Europe, including Germany, target older adults and high-risk populations (pregnant women, children and other age groups with chronic diseases).What is new? This analysis simulates the effects of expanding current German vaccination programs in high-risk children to include healthy children, and of increasing vaccination coverage rates, for direct protection against infection, and to reduce the disease transmission in the rest of the population.We modeled three vaccination strategies: vaccinating 40% of all (healthy and high- risk) children under 5 years old;vaccinating 40% of all (healthy and high-risk) children under 18 years old;vaccinating 90% of high-risk children under 18 years old.What is the impact? All three strategies resulted in health gains, as more influenza cases, complications and deaths were prevented in all age groups of the population compared to the current situation.The strategies targeting both healthy and high-risk children provided the greatest health benefits. In particular, a vaccination policy targeting all children under 18 years old was predicted to provide the most health benefits as well as the highest cost savings: the increased costs of vaccination were more than offset by the savings in disease management costs as a result of having fewer influenza patients.Vaccinating healthy children against influenza is expected to significantly reduce the disease burden in the total population while saving costs, due to reduced transmission of the disease.

Equity in vaccination policies to overcome social deprivation as a risk factor for invasive meningococcal disease.

INTRODUCTION: Social deprivation is associated with poorer healthcare access. Vaccination is among the most effective public health interventions and achieving equity in vaccination access is vitally important. However, vaccines are often reimbursed by public funds only when recommended in national immunization programs (NIPs), which can increase inequity between high and low socioeconomic groups. Invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) is a serious vaccination-preventable disease. This review focuses on vaccination strategies against IMD designed to reduce inequity. AREAS COVERED: We reviewed meningococcal epidemiology and current vaccination recommendations worldwide. We also reviewed studies demonstrating an association between social deprivation and risk of meningococcal disease, as well as studies demonstrating an impact of social deprivation on uptake of meningococcal vaccines. We discuss factors influencing inclusion of meningococcal vaccines in NIPs. EXPERT OPINION: Incorporating meningococcal vaccines in NIPs is necessary to reduce inequity, but insufficient alone. Inclusion provides clear guidance to healthcare professionals and helps to ensure that vaccines are offered universally to all target groups. Beyond NIPs, cost of vaccination should be reimbursed especially for disadvantaged individuals. These approaches should help to achieve optimal protection against IMD, by increasing access and immunization rates, eventually reducing social inequities, and helping to protect those at greatest risk.

According to the World Health Organization, health equity is achieved when every person has access to the highest attainable health standard regardless of socioeconomic status. Achieving health equity in access to vaccination is particularly important, as vaccination is one of the most effective public health measures. However, vaccines are often paid by public funds only when they are recommended in the country's National Immunization Program. This can increase inequity between the rich and poor, as people with fewer resources are less likely to have private insurance and be aware of vaccines that are not suggested by their doctor. Invasive meningococcal disease is uncommon and unpredictable but a serious infection that can result in long-term disability and can kill within 24 hours. Vaccination is the best measure to prevent it.We reviewed scientific studies to assess the link between socioeconomic status, the risk of having the disease, and the likelihood of being vaccinated against it. We found that the poorest households have the highest risk of getting the disease and the lowest vaccination rates, even in countries with successful vaccination programs.Achieving universal vaccination against invasive meningococcal disease is challenging for financial reasons and because the disease is uncommon. Key factors identified to improve vaccination uptake and reduce health inequity are the need for publicly funded vaccines, increased parents' knowledge of available vaccines, and stronger engagement of vaccination recommendation by doctors/nurses (see also Supplementary Figure 1).

Meningococcal Disease Outbreaks: A Moving Target and a Case for Routine Preventative Vaccination.

Outbreaks of invasive meningococcal disease (IMD) are unpredictable, can be sudden and have devastating consequences. We conducted a non-systematic review of the literature in PubMed (1997-2020) to assess outbreak response strategies and the impact of vaccine interventions. Since 1997, IMD outbreaks due to serogroups A, B, C, W, Y and X have occurred globally. Reactive emergency mass vaccination campaigns have encompassed single institutions (schools, universities) through to whole sections of the population at regional/national levels (e.g. serogroup B outbreaks in Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean region, Canada and New Zealand). Emergency vaccination responses to IMD outbreaks consistently incurred substantial costs (expenditure on vaccine supplies, personnel costs and interruption of other programmes). Impediments included the limited pace of transmission of information to parents/communities/healthcare workers; issues around collection of informed consents; poor vaccine uptake by older adolescents/young adults, often a target age group; issues of reimbursement, particularly in the USA; and difficulties in swift supply of large quantities of vaccines. For serogroup B outbreaks, the need for two doses was a significant issue that contributed substantially to costs, delayed onset of protection and non-compliance with dose 2. Real-world descriptions of outbreak control strategies and the associated challenges systematically show that reactive outbreak management is administratively, logistically and financially costly, and that its impact can be difficult to measure. In view of the unpredictability, fast pace and potential lethality of outbreak-associated IMD, prevention through routine vaccination appears the most effective mitigation tool. Highly effective vaccines covering five of six disease-causing serogroups are available. Preparedness through routine vaccination programmes will enhance the speed and effectiveness of outbreak responses, should they be needed (ready access to vaccines and need for a single booster dose rather than a primary series).

Recent advances in meningococcal B disease prevention: real-world evidence from 4CMenB vaccination.

OBJECTIVES: 4CMenB is a broadly protective vaccine against invasive meningococcal capsular group B disease (MenB IMD). Licensed worldwide based on immunogenicity and safety data, effectiveness and impact data are now available. We comprehensively reviewed all available real-world evidence gathered from use of 4CMenB since licensure. RESULTS: Data from 7 countries provide evidence of effectiveness and impact across different healthcare settings and age-groups, including national/regional immunization programs, observational studies and outbreak control. At least 2 4CMenB doses reduced MenB IMD by 50%-100% in 2-month to 20-year-olds depending on length of follow-up. Estimates of vaccine effectiveness in fully vaccinated cohorts ranged from 59%-100%. The safety profile of 4CMenB administered in real-world settings was consistent with pre-licensure clinical trial data. CONCLUSION: MenB IMD is an uncommon but life-threatening disease with unpredictable epidemiology. The substantial body of data demonstrating 4CMenB effectiveness and impact supports its use in IMD prevention. The results reinforce the importance of direct protection of the highest risk groups; infants/young children and adolescents. Direct protection via routine infant immunization with catch-up in young children and routine adolescent vaccination could be the preferred option for MenB disease control. A Video Abstract linked to this article is available on Figshare: https://doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.14546790.

Looking beyond meningococcal B with the 4CMenB vaccine: the Neisseria effect.

Infections with Neisseria meningitidis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae have different clinical manifestations, but the bacteria share up to 80-90% genome sequence identity. The recombinant meningococcal serogroup B (MenB) vaccine 4CMenB consists of four antigenic components that can be present in non-B meningococcal and gonococcal strains. This comprehensive review summarizes scientific evidence on the genotypic and phenotypic similarities between vaccine antigens and their homologs expressed by non-B meningococcal and gonococcal strains. It also includes immune responses of 4CMenB-vaccinated individuals and effectiveness and impact of 4CMenB against these strains. Varying degrees of strain coverage were estimated depending on the non-B meningococcal serogroup and antigenic repertoire. 4CMenB elicits immune responses against non-B meningococcal serogroups and N. gonorrhoeae. Real-world evidence showed risk reductions of 69% for meningococcal serogroup W clonal complex 11 disease and 40% for gonorrhea after 4CMenB immunization. In conclusion, functional antibody activity and real-world evidence indicate that 4CMenB has the potential to provide some protection beyond MenB disease.

Four-component Meningococcal Serogroup B Vaccine Induces Antibodies With Bactericidal Activity Against Diverse Outbreak Strains in Adolescents.

BACKGROUND: Neisseria meningitidis serogroup B (MenB) causes most meningitis outbreaks worldwide. We evaluated the ability of the 4-component MenB vaccine (4CMenB) to induce bactericidal activity against outbreak strains in adolescents. METHODS: Individual sera from 20 United States and 23 Chilean adolescents who received 2 doses of 4CMenB 2 months apart were assayed at prevaccination and 1 month after second dose using a human complement serum bactericidal antibody assay (hSBA) against a full or subset strain panel consisting of 14 MenB outbreak strains and 1 MenW hyperendemic strain collected between 2001 and 2017 in the United States, United Kingdom, and France. Bactericidal activity was determined as the percentage of adolescents with hSBA titer ≥1:4 or ≥1:8. RESULTS: One month after the second 4CMenB dose, antibodies from 65% to 100% of the US adolescents were able to kill 12 of 15 strains at 1:4 dilution. The remaining 3 strains were killed by 45%, 25%, and 15% of US adolescent sera. Similar percentages exhibited hSBA titers of ≥1:8. Across a subset of 4 strains, point estimates for the percentages of Chilean and US adolescents with hSBA titers of ≥1:4 after the second 4CMenB dose were similar (100% for strain M27703, 74% vs. 80% for M26312, 52% vs. 45% for M08 0240745), except for strain M39090 (91% vs. 65%). CONCLUSIONS: This study was the first to evaluate bactericidal activity elicited by a MenB vaccine against 15 outbreak strains. Two doses of 4CMenB elicited bactericidal activity against MenB outbreak strains and a hyperendemic MenW strain.

Vaccines against Meningococcal Diseases.

Neisseria meningitidis is the main cause of meningitis and sepsis, potentially life-threatening conditions. Thanks to advancements in vaccine development, vaccines are now available for five out of six meningococcal disease-causing serogroups (A, B, C, W, and Y). Vaccination programs with monovalent meningococcal serogroup C (MenC) conjugate vaccines in Europe have successfully decreased MenC disease and carriage. The use of a monovalent MenA conjugate vaccine in the African meningitis belt has led to a near elimination of MenA disease. Due to the emergence of non-vaccine serogroups, recommendations have gradually shifted, in many countries, from monovalent conjugate vaccines to quadrivalent MenACWY conjugate vaccines to provide broader protection. Recent real-world effectiveness of broad-coverage, protein-based MenB vaccines has been reassuring. Vaccines are also used to control meningococcal outbreaks. Despite major improvements, meningococcal disease remains a global public health concern. Further research into changing epidemiology is needed. Ongoing efforts are being made to develop next-generation, pentavalent vaccines including a MenACWYX conjugate vaccine and a MenACWY conjugate vaccine combined with MenB, which are expected to contribute to the global control of meningitis.

Methods to evaluate serogroup B meningococcal vaccines: From predictions to real-world evidence.

Serogroup B meningococci (MenB) remain a prominent cause of invasive meningococcal disease (IMD). The protein-based multicomponent 4CMenB and the bivalent MenB-FHbp are the only currently available vaccines against MenB-caused IMD. Efficacy studies are not possible, due to the low incidence of IMD. Therefore, the vaccines' immunogenicity has been evaluated against several target strains chosen to quantify complement-mediated killing induced by each vaccine component in the serum bactericidal antibody assay. However, due to the wide genetic diversity and different expression levels of vaccine antigens across MenB strains, vaccine performance may differ from one strain to another. Here, we review the methods used to predict MenB strain coverage for 4CMenB and MenB-FHbp. Phenotypic assays such as the meningococcal antigen typing system (MATS, 4CMenB-specific) and the flow cytometric meningococcal antigen surface expression assay (MEASURE; MenB-FHbp-specific) were developed. Genomic approaches are also available, such as genetic MATS (gMATS) and the Bexsero antigen sequence type (BAST) scheme, both 4CMenB-specific. All methods allow tentative predictions of coverage across MenB strains, including that afforded by each vaccine antigen, and are rapid and reproducible. Real-world data on vaccine effectiveness are needed to confirm predictions obtained by these methods.