Protein and calorie prescription for children and young adults receiving continuous renal replacement therapy: a report from the Prospective Pediatric Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy Registry Group.

OBJECTIVE: Few published reports describe nutrition provision for critically ill children and young adults with acute kidney injury receiving continuous renal replacement therapy. The goals of this study were to describe feeding practices in pediatric continuous renal replacement therapy and to evaluate factors associated with over- and under-prescription of protein and calories. DESIGN: Retrospective database study. SETTING: Multicenter study in pediatric critical care units. PATIENTS: Patients with acute kidney injury (estimated glomerular filtration rate < 75 mL/min/1.73 m at continuous renal replacement therapy initiation) enrolled in the Prospective Pediatric Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy Registry. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS: Nutrition variables: initial and maximal protein (g/kg/day) and caloric (kcal/kg/day) prescription and predicted resting energy expenditure (kcal/kg/day). We determined factors predicting initial and maximal protein and caloric prescription by multivariate analysis. RESULTS: One hundred ninety-five patients (median [interquartile range] age = 8.1 [12.8] yrs, 56.9% men) were studied. Mean protein and caloric prescriptions at continuous renal replacement therapy initiation were 1.3 +/- 1.5 g/kg/day (median, 1.0; range, 0-10) and 37 +/- 27 kcal/kg/day (median, 32; range, 0-107). Mean maximal protein and caloric prescriptions during continuous renal replacement therapy were 2.0 +/- 1.5 g/kg/day (median, 1.7; range, 0-12) and 48 +/- 32 kcal/kg/day (median, 43; range, 0-117). Thirty-four percent of patients were initially prescribed < 1 g/kg/day protein; 23% never attained > 1 g/kg/day protein prescription. By continuous renal replacement therapy day 5, median protein prescribed was > 2 g/kg/day. Protein prescription practices differed substantially between medical centers with 5 of 10 centers achieving maximal protein prescription of > 2 g/kg/day in > or = 40% of patients. Caloric prescription exceeded predicted resting energy expenditure by 30%-100%. Factors independently associated with maximal protein and caloric prescription while on continuous renal replacement therapy were younger age, initial protein and caloric prescription and number of continuous renal replacement therapy treatment days (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Protein prescription in pediatric continuous renal replacement therapy may be inadequate. Inter-center variation exists with respect to nutrition prescription. Feeding practice standardization and research in pediatric acute kidney injury nutrition are essential to begin providing evidence-based feeding recommendations.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone for Childhood Nephrotic Syndrome: The ATLANTIS Randomized Trial.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: There is renewed interest in adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) for the treatment of nephrotic syndrome. We evaluated the efficacy and safety of ACTH in children with frequently relapsing or steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome in a randomized trial. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS: Participants aged 2-20 years old with frequently relapsing or steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome were enrolled from 16 sites in the United States and randomized 1:1 to ACTH (repository corticotropin injection) or no relapse-preventing treatment. ACTH treatment regimen was 80 U/1.73 m2 administered twice weekly for 6 months, followed by 40 U/1.73 m2 administered twice weekly for 6 months. The primary outcome was disease relapse during the first 6 months. Participants in the control group were offered crossover to ACTH treatment if they relapsed within 6 months. Secondary outcomes were relapse after ACTH dose reduction and treatment side effects. RESULTS: The trial was stopped at a preplanned interim analysis after enrollment of 31 participants because of a lack of discernible treatment efficacy. Fourteen out of 15 (93%) participants in the ACTH arm experienced disease relapse in the first 6 months, with a median time to first relapse of 23 days (interquartile range, 9-32), compared with 15 out of 16 (94%) participants and at a median of 21 days (interquartile range, 14-51) in the control group. There was no difference in the proportion of relapsed patients (odds ratio, 0.93; 95% confidence interval, 0.05 to 16.40; P>0.99) or time to first relapse (hazard ratio, 1.03; 95% confidence interval, 0.50 to 2.15; P=0.93). Thirteen out of 16 participants in the control group crossed over to ACTH treatment. Three out of 28 participants completed 12 months of ACTH treatment; the others exited the trial because of frequent relapses or side effects. There were no disease relapses after ACTH dose reduction among the three participants. Most side effects were mild and similar to side effects of corticosteroids. CONCLUSIONS: ACTH at 80 U/1.73 m2 administered twice weekly was ineffective at preventing disease relapses in pediatric nephrotic syndrome.

Current status of kidney transplant: update 2003.

Pediatric transplantation has seen remarkable advances over the past two decades with reduced morbidity and mortality, reduced rejection rates, and improved long-term patient and allograft survival. Infants currently have short-term patient and allograft survival rates better than any other age group; short-term allograft survival rates in CD recipients are equal to those in LD recipients. With decreased rejection, long-term allograft survival is improving dramatically. Transplantation allows for much reduced risks and improved metabolic status, growth and development, and more normal social interactions. The future of transplantation continues to be exciting, with opportunities for reduced immunosuppressive medications and their side effects, and the elusive goal of transplantation tolerance seems within reach.

Demographic characteristics of pediatric continuous renal replacement therapy: a report of the prospective pediatric continuous renal replacement therapy registry.

BACKGROUND: This article reports demographic characteristics and intensive care unit survival for 344 patients from the Prospective Pediatric Continuous Renal Replacement Therapy (ppCRRT) Registry, a voluntary multicenter observational network. DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, AND MEASUREMENTS: Ages were newborn to 25 yr, 58% were male, and weights were 1.3 to 160 kg. Patients spent a median of 2 d in the intensive care unit before CRRT (range 0 to 135). At CRRT initiation, 48% received diuretics and 66% received vasoactive drugs. Mean blood flow was 97.9 ml/min (range 10 to 350 ml/min; median 100 ml/min); mean blood flow per body weight was 5 ml/min per kg (range 0.6 to 53.6 ml/min per kg; median 4.1 ml/min per kg). Days on CRRT were <1 to 83 (mean 9.1; median 6). A total of 56% of circuits had citrate anticoagulation, 37% had heparin, and 7% had no anticoagulation. RESULTS: Overall survival was 58%; survival differed across participating centers. Survival was lowest (51%) when CRRT was started for combined fluid overload and electrolyte imbalance. There was better survival in patients with principal diagnoses of drug intoxication (100%), renal disease (84%), tumor lysis syndrome (83%), and inborn errors of metabolism (73%); survival was lowest in liver disease/transplant (31%), pulmonary disease/transplant (45%), and bone marrow transplant (45%). Overall survival was better for children who weighed >10 kg (63 versus 43%; P = 0.001) and for those who were older than 1 yr (62 versus 44%; P = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: CRRT can be used successfully for a wide range of critically ill children. Survival is best for those who have acute, specific abnormalities and lack multiple organ involvement; sicker patients with selected diagnoses may have lower survival. Center differences might suggest opportunities to define best practices with future study.

Sirolimus pharmacokinetics in pediatric renal transplant recipients receiving calcineurin inhibitor co-therapy.

We have previously reported sirolimus (SRL) pharmacokinetics (PK) in pediatric renal transplant recipients on a calcineurin inhibitor (CNI)-free protocol. We now report pediatric SRL PK in pediatric renal transplant patients receiving SRL + CNI. SRL was dosed to achieve target trough levels between 10 and 20 ng/mL. We performed 49 SRL PK profiles in pediatric renal transplant recipients receiving SRL in combination with either cyclosporine (CsA; 25 profiles), or tacrolimus (TCL; 24 profiles). Ten of the SRL + TCL profiles were obtained from children receiving SRL on a b.i.d. dosing regimen. All other SRL profiles were q.d. regimens. We calculated, the maximum concentration (C(max)), AUC, apparent clearance (aCL; dose/AUC) for dose in mg/m(2), and mean residence time (MRT). SRL levels were measured at 6 and 7 time points for b.i.d. and q.d. dosing, respectively. Regression analysis of SRL trough values vs. AUC showed good correlation in the SRL q.d. + CsA, SRL q.d. + TCL, and SRL b.i.d. + TCL groups (r(2) = 0.95, 0.68, and 0.44, respectively). SRL aCL corrected for body surface area was higher in children aged 0-5 yr receiving SRL with either CsA or TCL. SRL dosing schedule should be tailored to each patient. Higher SRL aCL may be present in younger children when administered with CNI.

A randomized multicenter trial of OKT3 mAbs induction compared with intravenous cyclosporine in pediatric renal transplantation.

Acute rejection leading to renal graft failure is more frequent among children. In patients treated with T cell antibody induction, retrospective data from the pediatric registry show a 22% reduction in the risk of graft failure. We conducted a randomized trial (n = 287) using OKT3 mAbs in one (OKT3) arm and intravenous cyclosporine in the other arm (CYS). Maintenance therapy consisted of randomized, double blind Sandimmune or Neoral together with prednisone and either azathioprine (AZA) or mycophenolate mofetil (MMF). Morbidity, mortality, rejection rates and adverse reactions in the two study arms were similar. Through 4 yr, graft failure was 27% in OKT3 and 19% in CYS (p = 0.15). One-year graft survival was 89.1% in OKT3 and 89.2% in CYS (p = .19). In multivariate analysis, OKT3 had a numerically inferior graft survival (RR = 1.4, CI 0.8-2.2, p = 0.22). In OKT3 graft survival was inferior for children aged 6 yr or younger. Our trial demonstrates that the incidence of acute rejection or graft failure in pediatric patients is not improved by OKT3 induction therapy relative to cyclosporine induction.

Changing trends in pediatric transplantation: 2001 Annual Report of the North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative Study.

The North American Pediatric Renal Transplant Cooperative Study has collected clinical information on children undergoing a renal transplantation since 1987. This cooperative group now includes over 150 participating medical centers in the United States, Canada, Mexico, and Costa Rica. This report covers the years from 1987 through 2001 and includes data on 7545 renal transplants in 6878 patients. This report demonstrates changing trends in many areas of pediatric transplantation including increasing numbers of African American and Hispanic children receiving transplantation, remarkable improvements in the rate of acute rejection, rejection reversal, and short- and long-term allograft survival. In the most recent cohorts of patients, we now see that 1-yr allograft survival is no different in cadaver donor compared to living donor recipients and in infants compared to all other age groups. However, this analysis also reveals areas of continued challenges including inferior outcomes in African American and adolescent populations, chronic rejection, and the adverse effects of immunosuppression.

Pediatric hemofiltration: Normocarb dialysate solution with citrate anticoagulation.

Fourteen children, newborn to 17 years of age, underwent continuous veno-venous hemofiltration with dialysis (CVVHD), using a new FDA-approved bicarbonate-based calcium-free dialysis solution (Normocarb) in combination with citrate anticoagulation. Dialysis prescription included use of the PRISMA system (Gambro, Lakewood, Colo., USA), with ACD-A (Baxter, Deerfield, Ill., USA) for anticoagulation and Normocarb (Dialysis Solution, Richmond Hills, Ontario, Canada) for dialysate. Diagnosis included 11 children with sepsis and 3 children with tumor lysis syndrome. Mean weight was 31.6+/-4.7 kg (range 3.7-62 kg) and average length of therapy was 11.4+/-3.7 days (range 6 h to 67 days). Length of circuit patency was 71.3+/-7.2 h (range 6 h to 127 h), which was influenced in part by a decision to change circuits at 72 h as per manufacturer's recommendation. No bleeding occurred. This protocol utilizes industry-manufactured CVVHD machinery with both thermic and ultrafiltration control, with an effective anticoagulation protocol, and industry-produced bicarbonate dialysate. The use of industry machinery and solutions allows for consistent industrial quality assurance standards. This potentially may decrease the cost of therapy and minimize the risk of pharmacy errors that can occur with pharmacy-made dialysis solutions.