BCG Skin Infection Triggers IL-1R-MyD88-Dependent Migration of EpCAMlow CD11bhigh Skin Dendritic cells to Draining Lymph Node During CD4+ T-Cell Priming.

The transport of antigen from the periphery to the draining lymph node (DLN) is critical for T-cell priming but remains poorly studied during infection with Mycobacterium bovis Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG). To address this we employed a mouse model to track the traffic of Dendritic cells (DCs) and mycobacteria from the BCG inoculation site in the skin to the DLN. Detection of BCG in the DLN was concomitant with the priming of antigen-specific CD4+ T cells at that site. We found EpCAMlow CD11bhigh migratory skin DCs to be mobilized during the transport of BCG to the DLN. Migratory skin DCs distributed to the T-cell area of the LN, co-localized with BCG and were found in close apposition to antigen-specific CD4+ T cells. Consequently, blockade of skin DC traffic into DLN dramatically reduced mycobacterial entry into DLN and muted T-cell priming. Interestingly, DC and mycobacterial entry into the DLN was dependent on IL-1R-I, MyD88, TNFR-I and IL-12p40. In addition, we found using DC adoptive transfers that the requirement for MyD88 in BCG-triggered migration was not restricted to the migrating DC itself and that hematopoietic expression of MyD88 was needed in part for full-fledged migration. Our observations thus identify a population of DCs that contribute towards the priming of CD4+ T cells to BCG infection by transporting bacilli into the DLN in an IL-1R-MyD88-dependent manner and reveal both DC-intrinsic and -extrinsic requirements for MyD88 in DC migration.

NLRP3 inflammasome activation downstream of cytoplasmic LPS recognition by both caspase-4 and caspase-5.

Humans encode two inflammatory caspases that detect cytoplasmic LPS, caspase-4 and caspase-5. When activated, these trigger pyroptotic cell death and caspase-1-dependent IL-1ß production; however the mechanism underlying this process is not yet confirmed. We now show that a specific NLRP3 inhibitor, MCC950, prevents caspase-4/5-dependent IL-1ß production elicited by transfected LPS. Given that both caspase-4 and caspase-5 can detect cytoplasmic LPS, it is possible that these proteins exhibit some degree of redundancy. Therefore, we generated human monocytic cell lines in which caspase-4 and caspase-5 were genetically deleted either individually or together. We found that the deletion of caspase-4 suppressed cell death and IL-1ß production following transfection of LPS into the cytoplasm, or in response to infection with Salmonella typhimurium. Although deletion of caspase-5 did not confer protection against transfected LPS, cell death and IL-1ß production were reduced after infection with Salmonella. Furthermore, double deletion of caspase-4 and caspase-5 had a synergistic effect in the context of Salmonella infection. Our results identify the NLRP3 inflammasome as the specific platform for IL-1ß maturation, downstream of cytoplasmic LPS detection by caspase-4/5. We also show that both caspase-4 and caspase-5 are functionally important for appropriate responses to intracellular Gram-negative bacteria.

Genome-wide identification of ampicillin resistance determinants in Enterococcus faecium.

Enterococcus faecium has become a nosocomial pathogen of major importance, causing infections that are difficult to treat owing to its multi-drug resistance. In particular, resistance to the ß-lactam antibiotic ampicillin has become ubiquitous among clinical isolates. Mutations in the low-affinity penicillin binding protein PBP5 have previously been shown to be important for ampicillin resistance in E. faecium, but the existence of additional resistance determinants has been suggested. Here, we constructed a high-density transposon mutant library in E. faecium and developed a transposon mutant tracking approach termed Microarray-based Transposon Mapping (M-TraM), leading to the identification of a compendium of E. faecium genes that contribute to ampicillin resistance. These genes are part of the core genome of E. faecium, indicating a high potential for E. faecium to evolve towards ß-lactam resistance. To validate the M-TraM results, we adapted a Cre-lox recombination system to construct targeted, markerless mutants in E. faecium. We confirmed the role of four genes in ampicillin resistance by the generation of targeted mutants and further characterized these mutants regarding their resistance to lysozyme. The results revealed that ddcP, a gene predicted to encode a low-molecular-weight penicillin binding protein with D-alanyl-D-alanine carboxypeptidase activity, was essential for high-level ampicillin resistance. Furthermore, deletion of ddcP sensitized E. faecium to lysozyme and abolished membrane-associated D,D-carboxypeptidase activity. This study has led to the development of a broadly applicable platform for functional genomic-based studies in E. faecium, and it provides a new perspective on the genetic basis of ampicillin resistance in this organism.

Identification of a genetic determinant in clinical Enterococcus faecium strains that contributes to intestinal colonization during antibiotic treatment.

Intestinal colonization by antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus faecium is the first step in a process that can lead to infections in hospitalized patients. By comparative genome analysis and subsequent polymerase chain reaction screening, we identified a locus that encodes a putative phosphotransferase system (PTS). The PTS locus was widespread in isolates from hospital outbreaks of infection (84.2%) and nonoutbreak clinical infections (66.0%) but absent from human commensal isolates. Deletion of pstD, which is predicted to encode the enzyme IID subunit of this PTS, significantly impaired the ability of E. faecium to colonize the murine intestinal tract during antibiotic treatment. This is the first description of a determinant that contributes to intestinal colonization in clinical E. faecium strains.

Functional genomic analysis of bile salt resistance in Enterococcus faecium.

BACKGROUND: Enterococcus faecium is a Gram-positive commensal bacterium of the mammalian intestinal tract. In the last two decades it has also emerged as a multi-resistant nosocomial pathogen. In order to survive in and colonize the human intestinal tract E. faecium must resist the deleterious actions of bile. The molecular mechanisms exploited by this bacterium to tolerate bile are as yet unexplored. RESULTS: In this study we used a high-throughput quantitative screening approach of transposon mutant library, termed Microarray-based Transposon Mapping (M-TraM), to identify the genetic determinants required for resistance to bile salts in E. faecium E1162. The gene gltK, which is predicted to encode a glutamate/aspartate transport system permease protein, was identified by M-TraM to be involved in bile resistance. The role of GltK in bile salt resistance was confirmed by the subsequent observation that the deletion of gltK significantly sensitized E. faecium E1162 to bile salts. To further characterize the response of E. faecium E1162 to bile salts, we performed a transcriptome analysis to identify genes that are regulated by exposure to 0.02% bile salts. Exposure to bile salts resulted in major transcriptional rearrangements, predominantly in genes involved in carbohydrate, nucleotide and coenzyme transport and metabolism. CONCLUSION: These findings add to a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which E. faecium responds and resists the antimicrobial action of bile salts.

C4b-binding protein inhibits particulate- and crystalline-induced NLRP3 inflammasome activation.

Dysregulated NLRP3 inflammasome activation drives a wide variety of diseases, while endogenous inhibition of this pathway is poorly characterised. The serum protein C4b-binding protein (C4BP) is a well-established inhibitor of complement with emerging functions as an endogenously expressed inhibitor of the NLRP3 inflammasome signalling pathway. Here, we identified that C4BP purified from human plasma is an inhibitor of crystalline- (monosodium urate, MSU) and particulate-induced (silica) NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Using a C4BP mutant panel, we identified that C4BP bound these particles via specific protein domains located on the C4BP α-chain. Plasma-purified C4BP was internalised into MSU- or silica-stimulated human primary macrophages, and inhibited MSU- or silica-induced inflammasome complex assembly and IL-1ß cytokine secretion. While internalised C4BP in MSU or silica-stimulated human macrophages was in close proximity to the inflammasome adaptor protein ASC, C4BP had no direct effect on ASC polymerisation in in vitro assays. C4BP was also protective against MSU- and silica-induced lysosomal membrane damage. We further provide evidence for an anti-inflammatory function for C4BP in vivo, as C4bp-/- mice showed an elevated pro-inflammatory state following intraperitoneal delivery of MSU. Therefore, internalised C4BP is an inhibitor of crystal- or particle-induced inflammasome responses in human primary macrophages, while murine C4BP protects against an enhanced inflammatory state in vivo. Our data suggests C4BP has important functions in retaining tissue homeostasis in both human and mice as an endogenous serum inhibitor of particulate-stimulated inflammasome activation.

Macrolide resistance determination and molecular typing of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in respiratory specimens collected between 1997 and 2008 in The Netherlands.

An important role in the treatment regimens for Mycoplasma pneumoniae infections is played by macrolide (ML) antibiotics. In the past few years, however, a steady increase has been detected in the worldwide prevalence of ML-resistant (ML(r)) M. pneumoniae strains. It is obvious that this increase necessitates a continuous monitoring of ML(r) and, when detected, modification of antibiotic treatment modalities. Previously, we developed a pyrosequencing-based assay system for the genetic determination of ML(r) as well as molecular typing of M. pneumoniae. In this study, the sensitivity of this system was improved by the inclusion of a nested-PCR protocol. The modified system was applied to 114 M. pneumoniae-positive specimens that were obtained from a collection of 4,390 samples from patients with acute respiratory tract infections. These samples were collected between 1997 and 2008 in The Netherlands. The pyrosequencing system produced reliable data in 86% of the specimens that contained >500 M. pneumoniae genome copies/ml of patient sample. Each of these samples contained DNA of the ML-sensitive genotype. While 43% of the samples were found to harbor the M. pneumoniae subtype 1 genotype, 57% contained the subtype 2 genotype. We conclude that the pyrosequencing-based assay system is a useful tool for ML(r) determination and molecular typing of M. pneumoniae in patient samples. ML(r)-associated M. pneumoniae genotypes, however, were not found in the current study population.

The Salmonella pathogenicity island-2 subverts human NLRP3 and NLRC4 inflammasome responses.

Inflammasomes are signaling hubs that activate inflammatory caspases to drive cytokine maturation and cell lysis. Inflammasome activation by Salmonella Typhimurium infection or Salmonella-derived molecules is extensively studied in murine myeloid cells. Salmonella-induced inflammasome signaling in human innate immune cells, is however, poorly characterized. Here, we show that Salmonella mutation to inactivate the Salmonella pathogenicity island-2 type III secretion system (SPI2 T3SS) potentiates S. Typhimurium-induced inflammasome responses from primary human macrophages, resulting in strong IL-1ß production and macrophage death. Inactivation of the SPI1 T3SS diminished human macrophage responses to WT and ΔSPI2 Salmonella. Salmonella ΔSPI2 elicited a mixed inflammasome response from human myeloid cells, in which NLR family CARD-domain containing protein 4 (NLRC4) and NLR family PYRIN-domain containing protein 3 (NLRP3) perform somewhat redundant functions in generating IL-1ß and inducing pyroptosis. Our data suggest that Salmonella employs the SPI2 T3SS to subvert SPI1-induced NLRP3 and NLRC4 inflammasome responses in human primary macrophages, in a species-specific immune evasion mechanism.

Caspase-1 self-cleavage is an intrinsic mechanism to terminate inflammasome activity.

Host-protective caspase-1 activity must be tightly regulated to prevent pathology, but mechanisms controlling the duration of cellular caspase-1 activity are unknown. Caspase-1 is activated on inflammasomes, signaling platforms that facilitate caspase-1 dimerization and autoprocessing. Previous studies with recombinant protein identified a caspase-1 tetramer composed of two p20 and two p10 subunits (p20/p10) as an active species. In this study, we report that in the cell, the dominant species of active caspase-1 dimers elicited by inflammasomes are in fact full-length p46 and a transient species, p33/p10. Further p33/p10 autoprocessing occurs with kinetics specified by inflammasome size and cell type, and this releases p20/p10 from the inflammasome, whereupon the tetramer becomes unstable in cells and protease activity is terminated. The inflammasome-caspase-1 complex thus functions as a holoenzyme that directs the location of caspase-1 activity but also incorporates an intrinsic self-limiting mechanism that ensures timely caspase-1 deactivation. This intrinsic mechanism of inflammasome signal shutdown offers a molecular basis for the transient nature, and coordinated timing, of inflammasome-dependent inflammatory responses.

Salmonella-induced inflammasome activation in humans.

Inflammasomes are macromolecular complexes that assemble upon recognition of pathogen- or danger-associated molecular patterns. Inflammasome assembly is nucleated by the oligomerisation of specific, activated pattern recognition receptors within the cytosol. Inflammasomes function as platforms for the activation of the caspase-1 protease, which in turn triggers the maturation and secretion of the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1ß and IL-18, and initiates pyroptosis, a highly inflammatory form of lytic cell death. Recently, additional inflammatory caspases (murine caspase-11, and human caspase-4/5) were also reported to be activated upon a pyroptosis-inducing 'non-canonical inflammasome' by direct recognition of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), a pathogen-associated molecular pattern. Here we review and discuss recent advances in our understanding of inflammasome-mediated host defence against Salmonella particularly in human cells, and their implications for cellular survival and cytokine secretion.

The N-terminal domain of the thermo-regulated surface protein PrpA of Enterococcus faecium binds to fibrinogen, fibronectin and platelets.

Enterococcus faecium is a commensal of the mammalian gastrointestinal tract, but is also found in non-enteric environments where it can grow between 10 °C and 45 °C. E. faecium has recently emerged as a multi-drug resistant nosocomial pathogen. We hypothesized that genes involved in the colonization and infection of mammals exhibit temperature-regulated expression control and we therefore performed a transcriptome analysis of the clinical isolate E. faecium E1162, during mid-exponential growth at 25 °C and 37 °C. One of the genes that exhibited differential expression between 25 °C and 37 °C, was predicted to encode a peptidoglycan-anchored surface protein. The N-terminal domain of this protein is unique to E. faecium and closely related enterococci, while the C-terminal domain is homologous to the Streptococcus agalactiae surface protein BibA. This region of the protein contains proline-rich repeats, leading us to name the protein PrpA for proline-rich protein A. We found that PrpA is a surface-exposed protein which is most abundant during exponential growth at 37 °C in E. faecium E1162. The heterologously expressed and purified N-terminal domain of PrpA was able to bind to the extracellular matrix proteins fibrinogen and fibronectin. In addition, the N-terminal domain of PrpA interacted with both non-activated and activated platelets.

A LacI-family regulator activates maltodextrin metabolism of Enterococcus faecium.

Enterococcus faecium is a gut commensal of humans and animals. In the intestinal tract, E. faecium will have access to a wide variety of carbohydrates, including maltodextrins and maltose, which are the sugars that result from the enzymatic digestion of starch by host-derived and microbial amylases. In this study, we identified the genetic determinants for maltodextrin utilization of E. faecium E1162. We generated a deletion mutant of the mdxABCD-pulA gene cluster that is homologous to maltodextrin uptake genes in other Gram-positive bacteria, and a deletion mutant of the mdxR gene, which is predicted to encode a LacI family regulator of mdxABCD-pulA. Both mutations impaired growth on maltodextrins but had no effect on the growth on maltose and glucose. Comparative transcriptome analysis showed that eight genes (including mdxABCD-pulA) were expressed at significantly lower levels in the isogenic ΔmdxR mutant strain compared to the parental strain when grown on maltose. Quantitative real-time RT-PCR confirmed the results of transcriptome analysis and showed that the transcription of a putative maltose utilization gene cluster is induced in a semi-defined medium supplemented with maltose but is not regulated by MdxR. Understanding the maltodextrin metabolism of E. faecium could yield novel insights into the underlying mechanisms that contribute to the gut commensal lifestyle of E. faecium.