A p57 conditional mutant allele that allows tracking of p57-expressing cells.

p57Kip2 (p57) is a maternally expressed imprinted gene regulating growth arrest which belongs to the CIP/KIP family of cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors. While initially identified as a cell cycle arrest protein through inhibition of cyclin and cyclin-dependent kinase complexes, p57 activity has also been linked to differentiation, apoptosis, and senescence. In addition, p57 has recently been shown to be involved in tumorigenesis and cell fate decisions in stem cells. Yet, p57 function in adult tissues remains poorly characterized due to the perinatal lethality of p57 knock-out mice. To analyze p57 tissue-specific activity, we generated a conditional mouse line (p57FL-ILZ/+ ) by flanking the coding exons 2-3 by LoxP sites. To track p57-expressing or mutant cells, the p57FL-ILZ allele also contains an IRES-linked ß-galactosidase reporter inserted in the 3' UTR of the gene. Here, we show that the ß-galactosidase reporter expression pattern recapitulates p57 tissue specificity during development and in postnatal mice. Furthermore, we crossed the p57FL-ILZ/+ mice with PGK-Cre mice to generate p57cKO-ILZ/+ animals with ubiquitous loss of p57. p57cKO-ILZ/+ mice display developmental phenotypes analogous to previously described p57 knock-outs. Thus, p57FL-ILZ/+ is a new genetic tool allowing expression and functional conditional analyses of p57.

Sim2 prevents entry into the myogenic program by repressing MyoD transcription during limb embryonic myogenesis.

The basic helix-loop-helix transcription factor MyoD is a central actor that triggers the skeletal myogenic program. Cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous regulatory pathways must tightly control MyoD expression to ensure correct initiation of the muscle program at different places in the embryo and at different developmental times. In the present study, we have addressed the involvement of Sim2 (single-minded 2) in limb embryonic myogenesis. Sim2 is a bHLH-PAS transcription factor that inhibits transcription by active repression and displays enhanced expression in ventral limb muscle masses during chick and mouse embryonic myogenesis. We have demonstrated that Sim2 is expressed in muscle progenitors that have not entered the myogenic program, in different experimental conditions. MyoD expression is transiently upregulated in limb muscle masses of Sim2(-/-) mice. Conversely, Sim2 gain-of-function experiments in chick and Xenopus embryos showed that Sim2 represses MyoD expression. In addition, we show that Sim2 represses the activity of the mouse MyoD promoter in primary myoblasts and is recruited to the MyoD core enhancer in embryonic mouse limbs. Sim2 expression is non-autonomously and negatively regulated by the dorsalising factor Lmx1b. We propose that Sim2 represses MyoD transcription in limb muscle masses, through Sim2 recruitment to the MyoD core enhancer, in order to prevent premature entry into the myogenic program. This MyoD repression is predominant in ventral limb regions and is likely to contribute to the differential increase of the global mass of ventral muscles versus dorsal muscles.

Novel mechanisms of MITF regulation and melanoma predisposition identified in a mouse suppressor screen.

MITF, a basic-Helix-Loop-Helix Zipper (bHLHZip) transcription factor, plays vital roles in melanocyte development and functions as an oncogene. To explore MITF regulation and its role in melanoma, we conducted a genetic screen for suppressors of the Mitf-associated pigmentation phenotype. An intragenic Mitf mutation was identified, leading to termination of MITF at the K316 SUMOylation site and loss of the C-end intrinsically disordered region (IDR). The resulting protein is more nuclear but less stable than wild-type MITF and retains DNA-binding ability. Interestingly, as a dimer, it can translocate wild-type and mutant MITF partners into the nucleus, improving its own stability and ensuring an active nuclear MITF supply. Interactions between K316 SUMOylation and S409 phosphorylation sites across monomers largely explain the observed effects. Notably, the recurrent melanoma-associated E318K mutation in MITF, which affects K316 SUMOylation, also alters protein regulation in concert with S409, unraveling a novel regulatory mechanism with unexpected disease insights.

Genetic regulation of skeletal muscle development.

During development, skeletal muscles are established in a highly organized manner, which persists throughout life. Molecular and genetic experiments over the last decades have identified many developmental control genes critical for skeletal muscle formation. Developmental studies have shown that skeletal muscles of the body, limb and head have distinct embryonic and cellular origin, and the genetic regulation at work in these domains and during adult myogenesis are starting to be identified. In this review we will summarize the current knowledge on the regulatory circuits that lead to the establishment of skeletal muscle in these different anatomical regions.

An unstable targeted allele of the mouse Mitf gene with a high somatic and germline reversion rate.

The mouse Mitf gene encodes a transcription factor that is regulated by serine phosphorylation and is critical for the development of melanin-containing pigment cells. To test the role of phosphorylation at a particular serine, S73 in exon 2 of Mitf, we used a standard targeting strategy in mouse embryonic stem cells to change the corresponding codon into one encoding an alanine. By chance, we generated an allele in which 85,222 bp of wild-type Mitf sequence are duplicated and inserted into an otherwise correctly targeted Mitf gene. Depending on the presence or absence of a neomycin resistance cassette, this genomic rearrangement leads to animals with a white coat with or without pigmented spots or a gray coat with obligatory white and black spots. Several independent, genetically stable germline revertants that lacked the duplicated wild-type sequence but retained the targeted codon were then derived. These animals were normally pigmented, indicating that the serine-to-alanine mutation is not deleterious to melanocyte development. The fact that mosaic coat reversions occur in all mice lacking the neo-cassette and that approximately 1% of these transmit a reverted allele to their offspring places this mutation among those with the highest spontaneous reversion rates in mammals.

In vivo role of alternative splicing and serine phosphorylation of the microphthalmia-associated transcription factor.

The microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (MITF) is a basic helix-loop-helix leucine zipper protein that plays major roles in the development and physiology of vertebrate melanocytes and melanoma cells. It is regulated by post-translational modifications, including phosphorylation at serine 73, which based on in vitro experiments imparts on MITF an increased transcriptional activity paired with a decreased stability. Serine 73 is encoded by the alternatively spliced exon 2B, which is preferentially skipped in mice carrying a targeted serine-73-to-alanine mutation. Here, we measured the relative abundance of exon 2B+ and exon 2B- RNAs in freshly isolated and FACS-sorted wild-type melanoblasts and melanocytes and generated a series of knock-in mice allowing forced incorporation of either alanine, aspartate, or wild-type serine at position 73. None of these knock-in alleles, however, creates a striking pigmentation phenotype on its own, but differences between them can be revealed either by a general reduction of Mitf transcript levels or in heteroallelic combinations with extant Mitf mutations. In fact, compared with straight serine-73 knock-in mice with their relative reduction of 2B+ Mitf, forced incorporation of alanine 73 leads to greater increases in MITF protein levels, melanoblast and melanocyte numbers, and extent of pigmentation in particular allelic combinations. These results underscore, in vivo, the importance of the link between alternative splicing and post-translational modifications and may bear on the recent observation that exon 2B skipping can be found in metastatic melanoma.

Allele-specific genetic interactions between Mitf and Kit affect melanocyte development.

The tyrosine kinase receptor KIT and the transcription factor MITF, each required for melanocyte development, have been shown to interact functionally both in vitro and in vivo. In vitro, KIT signaling leads to MITF phosphorylation, affecting MITF activity and stability. In vivo, the presence of the Mitf (Mi-wh) allele exacerbates the spotting phenotype associated with heterozygosity for Kit mutations. Here, we show that among a series of other Mitf alleles, only the recessive Mitf (mi-bws) mimics the effect of Mitf (Mi-wh) on Kit. Intriguingly, Mitf (mi-bws) is characterized by a splice defect that leads to a reduction of RNAs containing MITF exon 2B which encodes serine-73, a serine phosphorylated upon KIT signaling. Nevertheless, other Mitf alleles that generally affect Mitf RNA levels, or carry a serine-73-to-alanine mutation that specifically reduces exon 2B-containing RNAs, do not show similar interactions with Kit in vivo. We conclude that the recessive Mitf (mi-bws) is a complex allele that can display a semi-dominant effect when present in a Kit-sensitized background. We suggest that human disease variability may equally be due to complex, allele-specific interactions between different genes.

The role of MITF phosphorylation sites during coat color and eye development in mice analyzed by bacterial artificial chromosome transgene rescue.

The microphthalmia-associated transcription factor (Mitf) has emerged as an important model for gene regulation in eukaryotic organisms. In vertebrates, it regulates the development of several cell types including melanocytes and has also been shown to play an important role in melanoma. In vitro, the activity of MITF is regulated by multiple signaling pathways, including the KITL/KIT/B-Raf pathway, which results in phosphorylation of MITF on serine residues 73 and 409. However, the precise role of signaling to MITF in vivo remains largely unknown. Here, we use a BAC transgene rescue approach to introduce specific mutations in MITF to study the importance of specific phospho-acceptor sites and protein domains. We show that mice that carry a BAC transgene where single-amino-acid substitutions have been made in the Mitf gene rescue the phenotype of the loss-of-function mutations in Mitf. This may indicate that signaling from KIT to MITF affects other phospho-acceptor sites in MITF or that alternative sites can be phosphorylated when Ser73 and Ser409 have been mutated. Our results have implications for understanding signaling to transcription factors. Furthermore, as MITF and signaling mechanisms have been shown to play an important role in melanomas, our findings may lead to novel insights into this resilient disease.

MITF and cell proliferation: the role of alternative splice forms.

Recent studies show that the melanocyte transcription factor MITF not only activates differentiation genes but also genes involved in the regulation of the cell cycle, suggesting that it provides a link between cell proliferation and differentiation. MITF, however, comes in a variety of splice isoforms with potentially distinct biological activities. In particular, there are two isoforms, (-) and (+) MITF, that differ in six residues located upstream of the DNA binding basic domain and show slight differences in the efficiency with which they bind to target DNA. Using in vitro BrdU incorporation assays and FACS analysis in transiently transfected cells, we show that (+) MITF has a strong inhibitory effect on DNA synthesis while (-) MITF has none or only a mild one. The strong inhibitory activity of (+) MITF is not influenced by a number of mutations that modulate MITF's transcriptional activities and is independent of the protein's carboxyl terminus but dependent on its aminoterminus. A further dissection of the molecule points to the importance of an aminoterminal serine, serine-73, which in both isoforms is phosphorylated to comparable degrees. The results suggest that one or several aminoterminal domains cooperate with the alternatively spliced hexapeptide to render MITF anti-proliferative in a way that does not depend on direct E box binding.