EpiPro, a Novel, Synthetic, Activity-Regulated Promoter That Targets Hyperactive Neurons in Epilepsy for Gene Therapy Applications.

Epileptogenesis is characterized by intrinsic changes in neuronal firing, resulting in hyperactive neurons and the subsequent generation of seizure activity. These alterations are accompanied by changes in gene transcription networks, first with the activation of early-immediate genes and later with the long-term activation of genes involved in memory. Our objective was to engineer a promoter containing binding sites for activity-dependent transcription factors upregulated in chronic epilepsy (EpiPro) and validate it in multiple rodent models of epilepsy. First, we assessed the activity dependence of EpiPro: initial electrophysiology studies found that EpiPro-driven GFP expression was associated with increased firing rates when compared with unlabeled neurons, and the assessment of EpiPro-driven GFP expression revealed that GFP expression was increased ~150× after status epilepticus. Following this, we compared EpiPro-driven GFP expression in two rodent models of epilepsy, rat lithium/pilocarpine and mouse electrical kindling. In rodents with chronic epilepsy, GFP expression was increased in most neurons, but particularly in dentate granule cells, providing in vivo evidence to support the "breakdown of the dentate gate" hypothesis of limbic epileptogenesis. Finally, we assessed the time course of EpiPro activation and found that it was rapidly induced after seizures, with inactivation following over weeks, confirming EpiPro's potential utility as a gene therapy driver for epilepsy.

Drug-Inducible Gene Therapy Effectively Reduces Spontaneous Seizures in Kindled Rats but Creates Off-Target Side Effects in Inhibitory Neurons.

Over a third of patients with temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE) are not effectively treated with current anti-seizure drugs, spurring the development of gene therapies. The injection of adeno-associated viral vectors (AAV) into the brain has been shown to be a safe and viable approach. However, to date, AAV expression of therapeutic genes has not been regulated. Moreover, a common property of antiepileptic drugs is a narrow therapeutic window between seizure control and side effects. Therefore, a long-term goal is to develop drug-inducible gene therapies that can be regulated by clinically relevant drugs. In this study, a first-generation doxycycline-regulated gene therapy that delivered an engineered version of the leak potassium channel Kcnk2 (TREK-M) was injected into the hippocampus of male rats. Rats were electrically stimulated until kindled. EEG was monitored 24/7. Electrical kindling revealed an important side effect, as even low expression of TREK M in the absence of doxycycline was sufficient to cause rats to develop spontaneous recurring seizures. Treating the epileptic rats with doxycycline successfully reduced spontaneous seizures. Localization studies of infected neurons suggest seizures were caused by expression in GABAergic inhibitory neurons. In contrast, doxycycline increased the expression of TREK-M in excitatory neurons, thereby reducing seizures through net inhibition of firing. These studies demonstrate that drug-inducible gene therapies are effective in reducing spontaneous seizures and highlight the importance of testing for side effects with pro-epileptic stressors such as electrical kindling. These studies also show the importance of evaluating the location and spread of AAV-based gene therapies in preclinical studies.

The liberation of embryonic stem cells.

Mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells are defined by their capacity to self-renew and their ability to differentiate into all adult tissues including the germ line. Along with efficient clonal propagation, these properties have made them an unparalleled tool for manipulation of the mouse genome. Traditionally, mouse ES (mES) cells have been isolated and cultured in complex, poorly defined conditions that only permit efficient derivation from the 129 mouse strain; genuine ES cells have not been isolated from another species in these conditions. Recently, use of small molecule inhibitors of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (Gsk3) and the Fgf-MAPK signaling cascade has permitted efficient derivation of ES cells from all tested mouse strains. Subsequently, the first verified ES cells were established from a non-mouse species, Rattus norvegicus. Here, we summarize the advances in our understanding of the signaling pathways regulating mES cell self-renewal that led to the first derivation of rat ES cells and highlight the new opportunities presented for transgenic modeling on diverse genetic backgrounds. We also comment on the implications of this work for our understanding of pluripotent stem cells across mammalian species.

Human hypoblast formation is not dependent on FGF signalling.

Mouse embryos segregate three different lineages during preimplantation development: trophoblast, epiblast and hypoblast. These differentiation processes are associated with restricted expression of key transcription factors (Cdx2, Oct4, Nanog and Gata6). The mechanisms of segregation have been extensively studied in the mouse, but are not as well characterised in other species. In the human embryo, hypoblast differentiation has not previously been characterised. Here we demonstrate co-exclusive immunolocalisation of Nanog and Gata4 in human blastocysts, implying segregation of epiblast and hypoblast, as in rodent embryos. However, the formation of hypoblast in the human is apparently not dependent upon FGF signalling, in contrast to rodent embryos. Nonetheless, the persistence of Nanog-positive cells in embryos following treatment with FGF inhibitors is suggestive of a transient naïve pluripotent population in the human blastocyst, which may be similar to rodent epiblast and ES cells but is not sustained during conventional human ES cell derivation protocols.

Electrospun formulations containing crystalline active pharmaceutical ingredients.

PURPOSE: To investigate the use of electrospinning for forming solid dispersions containing crystalline active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) and understand the relevant properties of the resulting materials. METHOD: Free surface electrospinning was used to prepare nanofiber mats of poly(vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) and crystalline albendazole (ABZ) or famotidine (FAM) from a suspension of the drug crystals in a polymer solution. SEM and DSC were used to characterize the dispersion, XRD was used to determine the crystalline polymorph, and dissolution studies were performed to determine the influence of the preparation method on the dissolution rate. RESULTS: The electrospun fibers contained 31 wt% ABZ and 26 wt% FAM for the 1:2 ABZ:PVP and 1:2 FAM:PVP formulations, respectively, and both APIs retained their crystalline polymorphs throughout processing. The crystals had an average size of about 10 µm and were well-dispersed throughout the fibers, resulting in a higher dissolution rate for electrospun tablets than for powder tablets. CONCLUSIONS: Previously used to produce amorphous formulations, electrospinning has now been demonstrated to be a viable option for producing fibers containing crystalline API. Due to the dispersion of the crystals in the polymer, tablets made from the fiber mats may also exhibit improved dissolution properties over traditional powder compression.

Risk factors for COPD: what do NPs know?

PURPOSE: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has been identified as the fourth leading cause of death. The primary purpose of this article is to discuss risk factors for COPD and identify at-risk populations. A secondary purpose is to report the findings of a recent survey of nurse practitioners (NPs) in Colorado regarding their knowledge about the risk factors for COPD. Data sources A list of registered NPs in the State of Colorado was obtained from the State Board of Nursing. Surveys were sent to 2916 NPs to assess their knowledge about risk factors for COPD. CONCLUSIONS: Although the response rate was less than 10%, this survey highlighted that there were gaps in knowledge especially for pediatric, women's health, and geriatric NPs. NPs are on the front lines in assisting with the prevention, early diagnosis, and management of this complex disease. IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE: Formal NP educational programs (regardless of focus) should highlight that through recognition of risk factors, NPs can play a significant role in primary and secondary preventive measures that may decrease the impact of COPD. Public media campaigns to educate the public about risk factors may encourage the individual patients to address these risk factors with the primary care provider.

Robust self-renewal of rat embryonic stem cells requires fine-tuning of glycogen synthase kinase-3 inhibition.

Germline-competent embryonic stem cells (ESCs) have been derived from mice and rats using culture conditions that include an inhibitor of glycogen synthase kinase 3 (GSK3). However, rat ESCs remain susceptible to sporadic differentiation. Here, we show that unsolicited differentiation is attributable to overinhibition of GSK3. The self-renewal effect of inhibiting GSK3 is mediated via ß-catenin, which abrogates the repressive action of TCF3 on core pluripotency genes. In rat ESCs, however, GSK3 inhibition also leads to activation of differentiation-associated genes, notably lineage specification factors Cdx2 and T. Lowered GSK3 inhibition reduces differentiation and enhances clonogenicity and self-renewal. The differential sensitivity of rat ESCs to GSK3 inhibition is linked to elevated expression of the canonical Wnt pathway effector LEF1. These findings reveal that optimal GSK3 inhibition for ESC propagation is influenced by the balance of TCF/LEF factors and can vary between species.

COPD: Overview and survey of NP knowledge.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is quickly becoming one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality. The purpose of this article is to review the clinical presentation, spirometry, and pharmacologic management of COPD, as well as the results of a survey examining nurse practitioners' (NPs) knowledge about COPD and its management.

Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance study of the physical stability of electrospun drug and polymer solid solutions.

A major challenge in utilizing the amorphous form of an active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) in a final oral dosage form is preventing crystallization over time and ensuring stability. One method to improve stability is lowering the mobility of an API by formulating as a solid solution with an excipient. In this work, we use electrospinning to prepare solid solutions of API, aliskiren (SPP) or indomethacin (IND), and a polymer, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). The stability of the solid solutions over 6-month storage in a desiccator at 40 °C was investigated. Using X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry, it was determined that no crystals were present in the four formulations tested--1:1 SPP-PVP, 4:1 SPP-PVP, 1:1 IND-PVP, and 2:1 IND-PVP at any time. Solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance relaxation time measurements were used to determine whether phase separation of the API and polymer occurred during the study period. It was found that all formulations remained homogeneous down to at least a 2-10 nm length scale, indicating that for these APIs, electrospinning is an acceptable method for forming stable amorphous solid solutions.

Culture parameters for stable expansion, genetic modification and germline transmission of rat pluripotent stem cells.

The ability of cultured pluripotent cells to contribute to the germline of chimaeric animals is essential to their utility for genetic manipulation. In the three years since rat embryonic stem (ES) cells were first reported the anticipated proliferation of genetically modified rat models from this new resource has not been realised. Culture instability, karyotypic anomalies, and strain variation are postulated to contribute to poor germline colonisation capacity. The resolution of these issues is essential to bring pluripotent cell-based genetic manipulation technology in the rat to the level of efficiency achieved in the mouse. Recent reports have described various alternative methods to maintain rat ES cells that include provision of additional small molecules and selective passaging methods. In contrast, we report that euploid, germline competent rat ES and embryonic germ (EG) cell lines can be maintained by simple adherent culture methods in defined medium supplemented with the original two inhibitors (2i) of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (ERK1/2) cascade and of glycogen synthase kinase 3, in combination with the cytokine leukaemia inhibitory factor (LIF). We demonstrate genetic modification, clonal expansion and transmission through the germline of rat ES and EG cell lines. We also describe a marked preference for full-term chimaera contribution when SD strain blastocysts are used as recipients for either DA or SD pluripotent stem cells.