Characterisation and agronomic evaluation of acidified food waste anaerobic digestate products.

Raw liquid anaerobic digestate was synthesised into nutrient-dense solid digestates via acidification and evaporation. Acidification retained ammonium in the digestate whilst also donating the anion to free ammonium to form an ammonium salt. Digestate was treated with the addition of sulphuric, nitric, and phosphoric acid resulting in the formation of ammonium sulphate, ammonium nitrate and ammonium phosphate, respectively then evaporated into a solid fertiliser product. FTIR, XRD and SEM-EDS collectively confirm that the addition of acids completely converted the free ammonium in the raw digestate into their respective ammonium salt counterparts. Compounds of potassium chloride, silicon dioxide, calcium carbonate, magnesium ammonium phosphate, sodium nitrate, and sodium chloride were identified in all solid digestate samples. Plant growth and grain yield was higher in urea ammonium nitrate, raw liquid digestate and acidified digestate products compared to control and unacidified solid digestate. Urea ammonium nitrate and ammonium nitrate solid digestate had the highest dry shoot, likely due to the high available nitrogen found in both fertilisers. Overall, acidification and evaporation of liquid digestate can efficiently transform it into a valuable solid fertiliser with a high nutrient density. This process not only has the potential to mitigate handling and storage constraints of low nutrient density digestate in anaerobic digestion facilities but also offers a sustainable alternative to conventional fertilisers.

Succession of biochar addition for soil amendment and contaminants remediation during co-composting: A state of art review.

This paper aimed to highlight the succession of biochar addition for soil amendment and contaminants remediation during composting process. Biochar incorporated into the compost mixture promotes composting performance and enhances contaminants reduction. Co-composting with biochar for soil biota has been demonstrated via modified soil biological community abundance and diversity. On the other hand, adverse alterations to soil properties were noted, which had a negative impact on the communication of microbe-to-plant interactions within the rhizosphere. As a result, these changes influenced the competition between soilborne pathogens and beneficial soil microorganisms. Co-composting with biochar promoted the heavy metals (HMs) remediation efficiency in contaminated soils by around 66-95%. Notably, applying biochar during composting could improve nutrient retention and mitigate leaching. The adsorption of nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus compounds by biochar can be applied to manage environmental contamination and presents an excellent opportunity to enhance soil quality. Additionally, the various specific functional groups and large specific surface areas of biochar allow for excellent adsorption of persistent pollutants (e.g., pesticides, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)) and emerging organic pollutants, such as microplastic, phthalate acid esters (PAEs) during co-composting. Finally, future perspectives, research gaps, and recommendations for further studies are highlighted, and potential opportunities are discussed.

Value of dehydrated food waste fertiliser products in increasing soil health and crop productivity.

Dehydration of food waste is a technique in which food waste is dewatered to form a low moisture product. This research characterised the physicochemical properties of different dehydrated food waste products and examined their value in improving physical, biological, and chemical properties of soils. Dehydrated food waste products were slightly acidic (4.7-5.1) with high levels of electrical conductivity (EC) (4.83-7.64 mS cm-1). The products were composed of complex carbohydrates, polysaccharides, alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acid, lipids, and fats and contained high levels of total and available nutrients. Dehydrated food wastes slightly impacted the soil pH; however, they significantly increased soil EC, which may cause soil salinity when applied repeatedly. The food waste products also increased macro-nutrients (N, P, and K) for plants across different soil types. Carbon and nutrients in dehydrated food waste increased microbial activity, measured by basal respiration. Delayed germination and reduced plant growth of corn (Zea mays) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) plants were observed at high application rates of dehydrated food waste. This may have resulted from a combination of phytotoxins, anoxic conditions, salinity as well as the water-repellent nature of dehydrated food waste. However, release of nutrients increased nutrient uptake and plant biomass in corn and wheat plants at low levels of food waste application. The dehydrated food waste products may require composting prior to soil application or incorporation into soil for a long duration prior to planting. These processes will overcome the limitations of phytotoxins, anoxic conditions, salinity, and water repellence. Further work is required to optimise the levels of dehydrated food waste application to improve soil health and crop productivity.

Challenges and opportunities in sustainable management of microplastics and nanoplastics in the environment.

The accumulation of microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems has raised concerns because of their adverse effects on ecosystem functions and human health. Plastic waste management has become a universal problem in recent years. Hence, sustainable plastic waste management techniques are vital for achieving the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Although many reviews have focused on the occurrence and impact of micro- and nanoplastics (MNPs), there has been limited focus on the management of MNPs. This review first summarizes the ecotoxicological impacts of plastic waste sources and issues related to the sustainable management of MNPs in the environment. This paper then critically evaluates possible approaches for incorporating plastics into the circular economy in order to cope with the problem of plastics. Pollution associated with MNPs can be tackled through source reduction, incorporation of plastics into the circular economy, and suitable waste management. Appropriate infrastructure development, waste valorization, and economically sound plastic waste management techniques and viable alternatives are essential for reducing MNPs in the environment. Policymakers must pay more attention to this critical issue and implement appropriate environmental regulations to achieve environmental sustainability.

Phosphorus application enhances alkane hydroxylase gene abundance in the rhizosphere of wild plants grown in petroleum-hydrocarbon-contaminated soil.

This study assessed the ability of phosphorus (P) fertilizer to remediate the rhizosphere of three wild plant species (Banksia seminuda, a tree; Chloris truncata, a grass; and Hakea prostrata, a shrub) growing in a soil contaminated with total (aliphatic) petroleum hydrocarbon (TPH). Plant growth, photosynthesis (via chlorophyll fluorescence), soil microbial activity, alkane hydroxylase AlkB (aliphatic hydrocarbon-degrading) gene abundance, and TPH removal were evaluated 120 days after planting. Overall, although TPH served as an additional carbon source for soil microorganisms, the presence of TPH in soil resulted in decreased plant growth and photosynthesis. However, growth, photosynthesis, microbial activities, and AlkB gene abundance were enhanced by the application of P fertilizer, thereby increasing TPH removal rates, although the extent and optimum P dosage varied among the plant species. The highest TPH removal (64.66%) was observed in soil planted with the Poaceae species, C. truncata, and amended with 100 mg P kg-1 soil, while H. prostrata showed higher TPH removal compared to the plant belonging to the same Proteaceae family, B. seminuda. The presence of plants resulted in higher AlkB gene abundance and TPH removal relative to the unplanted control. The removal of TPH was associated directly with AlkB gene abundance (R2 > 0.9, p < 0.001), which was affected by plant identity and P levels. The results indicated that an integrated approach involving wild plant species and optimum P amendment, which was determined through experimentation using different plant species, was an efficient way to remediate soil contaminated with TPH.

Environmental implications, potential value, and future of food-waste anaerobic digestate management: A review.

Globally, the valorisation of food waste into digestate through the process of anaerobic digestion is becoming increasingly popular. As a result, a large amount of food-waste digestate will need to be properly utilised. The utilisation of anaerobic digestion for fertiliser and alternative uses is essential to obtain a circular bioeconomy. The review aims to examine the environmental management of food-waste digestate, the value of digestate as a fertiliser and soil conditioner, and the emerging uses and improvements for post-anaerobic digestion reuse of digestate. Odour emissions, contaminants in food waste, emission and leaching of nutrients into the environment, and the regulations, policies, and voluntary initiatives of anaerobic digestion are evaluated in the review. Food-waste digestate can provide essential nutrients, carbon, and bio-stimulants to soils and increase yield. Recently, promising research has shown that digestates can be used in hydroponic systems and potentially replace the use of synthetic fertilisers. The integration of anaerobic digestion with emerging uses, such as extraction of value-added products, algae cultivation, biochar and hydrochar production, can further reduce inhibitory sources of digestate and provide additional economic opportunities for businesses. Moreover, the end-product digestate from these technologies can also be more suitable for use in soil application and hydroponic use.

Are microplastics destabilizing the global network of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystem services?

Plastic has created a new man-made ecosystem called plastisphere. The plastic pieces including microplastics (MPs) and nanoplastics (NPs) have emerged as a global concern due to their omnipresence in ecosystems and their ability to interact with the biological systems. Nevertheless, the long-term impacts of MPs on biotic and abiotic resources are not completely understood, and existing evidence suggests that MPs are hazardous to various keystones species of the global biomes. MP-contaminated ecosystems show reduced floral and faunal biomass, productivity, nitrogen cycling, oxygen-generation and carbon sequestration, suggesting that MPs have already started affecting ecological biomes. However, not much is known about the influence of MPs towards the ecosystem services (ESs) cascade and its correlation with the biodiversity loss. MPs are perceived as a menace to the global ecosystems, but their possible impacts on the provisional, regulatory, and socio-economic ESs have not been extensively studied. This review investigates not only the potentiality of MPs to perturb the functioning of terrestrial and aquatic biomes, but also the associated social, ecological and economic repercussions. The possible long-term fluxes in the ES network of terrestrial and aquatic niches are also discussed.

Soil salinity under climate change: Challenges for sustainable agriculture and food security.

Soil salinity is one of the major and widespread challenges in the recent era that hinders global food security and environmental sustainability. Worsening the situation, the harmful impacts of climate change accelerate the development of soil salinity, potentially spreading the problem in the near future to currently unaffected regions. This paper aims to synthesise information from published literature about the extent, development mechanisms, and current mitigation strategies for tackling soil salinity, highlighting the opportunities and challenges under climate change situations. Mitigation approaches such as application of amendments, cultivation of tolerant genotypes, suitable irrigation, drainage and land use strategies, conservation agriculture, phytoremediation, and bioremediation techniques have successfully tackled the soil salinity issue, and offered associated benefits of soil carbon sequestration, and conservation and recycling of natural resources. These management practices further improve the socio-economic conditions of the rural farming community in salt-affected areas. We also discuss emerging reclamation strategies such as saline aquaculture integrated with sub surface drainage, tolerant microorganisms integrated with tolerant plant genotypes, integrated agro-farming systems that warrant future research attention to restore the agricultural sustainability and global food security under climate change scenarios.

Preparation of ammonium-modified cassava waste-derived biochar and its evaluation for synergistic adsorption of ternary antibiotics from aqueous solution.

Mono- and co-sorption of the three antibiotics i.e., norfloxacin (NOR), sulfamerazine (SMR) and oxytetracycline (OTC), to raw and NH4+-modified cassava waste biochar added to aqueous solutions were investigated. The NH4+-modified biochar showed higher sorption affinity for both NOR and SMR than the raw biochar, while the raw biochar showed higher sorption affinity for OTC than the modified biochar. The highest sorption to both biochars in both the mono- and competitive sorption systems was found for OTC followed by NOR and SMR. Sorption equilibrium in all systems analyzed was reached within 15 h. Electrostatic interactions among the ionic antibiotics in the multicomponent solution increased NOR and SMR sorption to both biochars. Antibiotics' mono- and co-sorption to biochars decreased with increasing solution pH. The co-sorption of NOR and SMR to the two biochars was regulated by π-π electron-donor-acceptor (EDA) interactions; besides, electrostatic interactions and Hydrogen (H-) bonding played an important part. Cation bridging might have been a potential mechanism to contribute to SMR sorption to the raw biochar, and OTC sorption to the NH4+-modified biochar. These observations will improve our understanding of the simultaneous removal of multiple antibiotics from water or wastewater.

Carbon sequestration value of biosolids applied to soil: A global meta-analysis.

Biosolids produced at wastewater treatment facilities are extensively used in agricultural land and degraded mine sites to improve soil health and soil organic carbon (SOC) stocks. Many studies have reported increases in SOC due to application of biosolids to such sites. However, lack of a comprehensive quantification on overall trends and changes of magnitude in SOC remains. Here, we performed a meta-analysis to identify drivers with a relationship with SOC stocks. A meta-regression of 297 treatments found four variables with a relationship with SOC stocks: cumulative biosolids carbon (C) input rate, time after application, soil depth and type of biosolids. The cumulative biosolids C input rate was the most influencing driver. The highest mean difference for SOC% of 3.3 was observed at 0-15 cm soil depth for a cumulative C input of 100 Mg ha-1 at one year after biosolids application. Although years after biosolids application demonstrated a negative relationship with SOC stocks, mineralization of C in biosolids-applied soils is slow, as indicated with the SOC% decrease from 4.6 to 2.8 at 0-15 cm soil depth over five years of 100 Mg ha-1 biosolids C input. Soil depth illustrated a strong negative effect with SOC stocks decreasing by 2.7% at 0-15 cm soil depth at a cumulative biosolids C input of 100 Mg ha-1 over a year. Overall, our model estimated an effect of 2.8 SOC% change, indicating the application of biosolids as a viable strategy for soil C sequestration on a global scale.

Effects of excessive impregnation, magnesium content, and pyrolysis temperature on MgO-coated watermelon rind biochar and its lead removal capacity.

MgO-coated watermelon rind biochar (MWRB) is a potentially highly-effective waste-derived material in environmental applications. This research aims to provide valuable insights into the optimization of the production of MWRB for superior environmental performance. It was found that the Mg content of the MWRB could be easily controlled by adjusting the Mg/feedstock mass ratio during excessive impregnation. The BET surface area was found to first increase and then decrease as the Mg content of the MWRB (produced at 600 °C) increased from 1.52% to 10.1%, with an optimal surface area of 293 m2/g observed at 2.51%. Similarly, an optimum pyrolysis temperature of 600 °C was observed in the range of 400-800 °C for a maximum surface area of the MWRB at a fixed Mg/feedstock ratio of 0.48% (resulting in MWRBs with Mg contents of 1.89-2.51%). The Pb removal capacity of the MWRB (produced at 600 °C) increased with increasing Mg content, with a greatest Pb removal capacity of 558 mg/g found for the MWRB with the highest Mg content (10.1%), an improvement of 208% over the 181 mg/g Pb removal capacity of unmodified WRB produced at 600 °C. The Pb removal capacity of the MWRB (produced with 1.89-2.51% Mg) was also discovered to increase from 81.7 mg/g (at 400 °C) to 742 mg/g (at 700 °C), before dropping to 368 mg/g at 800 °C. These findings suggest that the MWRB can be more efficiently utilized in soil and water remediation by optimizing its synthesis conditions.

Effect on herbicide adsorption of organic forestry waste products used for soil remediation.

Organic soil amendments can be useful for improving degraded soil, but this increase in organic matter (OM) may influence adsorption of herbicides subsequently applied to the treated soil, even though the particle size of amendments and their nature differ from typical soil OM. In this study, a batch equilibrium method was used to measure adsorption of five herbicides following application to two organic media, wood pulp and sawdust, comparing these with two cropping soils. Herbicide adsorption, quantified by distribution coefficients (kd), was much higher in the two organic media than in the cropping soils. The increases in adsorption were strongly correlated to the percentage of organic carbon. When the kd was normalized to adsorption coefficients corrected for OM content (koc), variation in results between the media was greatly reduced, indicating that OM is an important factor influencing adsorption in these media. The results of this study suggest that herbicides will be less effective when applied to soils in which sawdust and wood pulp have been added. Using organic amendments to remediate soil will increase adsorption of pesticides, reducing their bio-availability and efficacy, but also reducing their tendency to leach into root zones of deep-rooted crops and into groundwater.

Cannabis contaminants: sources, distribution, human toxicity and pharmacologic effects.

There has been a resurgence in interest and use of the cannabis plant for medical purposes. However, an in-depth understanding of plant contaminants and toxin effects on stability of plant compounds and human bioavailability is needed. This systematic review aims to assess current understanding of the contaminants of cannabis and their effect on human health, leading to the identification of knowledge gaps for future investigation. A systematic search of seven indexed biological and biomedical databases and the Cochrane library was undertaken from inception up to December 2017. A qualitative synthesis of filtered results was undertaken after independent assessment for eligibility by two reviewers. The common cannabis contaminants include microbes, heavy metals and pesticides. Their direct human toxicity is poorly quantified but include infection, carcinogenicity, reproductive and developmental impacts. Cannabis dosing formulations and administration routes affect the transformation and bioavailability of contaminants. There may be important pharmacokinetic interactions between the alkaloid active ingredients of cannabis (i.e. phytocannabinoids) and contaminants but these are not yet identified nor quantified. There is significant paucity in the literature describing the prevalence and human impact of cannabis contaminants. Advances in the availability of cannabis globally warrant further research in this area, particularly when being used for patients.

Correction to: Influence of physico-chemical properties of soil clay fractions on the retention of dissolved organic carbon.

Unfortunately, in the original publication of the article, Prof. Yong Sik Ok's affiliation was incorrectly published. The author's affiliation is as follows.

Impact of wastewater derived dissolved organic carbon on reduction, mobility, and bioavailability of As(V) and Cr(VI) in contaminated soils.

In this work, the effects of various wastewater sources (storm water, sewage effluent, piggery effluent, and dairy effluent) on the reduction, and subsequent mobility and bioavailability of arsenate [As(V)] and chromate [Cr(VI)] were compared using both spiked and field contaminated soils. Wastewater addition to soil can increase the supply of carbon, nutrients, and stimulation of microorganisms which are considered to be important factors enhancing the reduction of metal(loid)s including As and Cr. The wastewater-induced mobility and bioavailability of As(V) and Cr(VI) were examined using leaching, earthworm, and soil microbial activity tests. The rate of reduction of As(V) was much less than that of Cr(VI) both in the presence and absence of wastewater addition. Wastewater addition increased the reduction of both As(V) and Cr(VI) compared to the control (Milli-Q water) and the effect was more pronounced in the case of Cr(VI). The leaching experiment indicated that Cr(VI) was more mobile than As(V). Wastewater addition increased the mobility and bioavailability of As(V), but had an opposite effect on Cr(VI). The difference in the mobility and bioavailability of Cr(VI) and As(V) between wastewater sources can be attributed to the difference in their dissolved organic carbon (DOC) content. The DOC provides carbon as an electron donor for the reduction of As(V) and Cr(VI) and also serves as a complexing agent thereby impacting their mobility and bioavailability. The DOC-induced reduction increased both the mobility and bioavailability of As, but it caused an opposite effect in the case of Cr.

Influence of physico-chemical properties of soil clay fractions on the retention of dissolved organic carbon.

This study investigated the effects of surface functional groups, cation exchange capacity (CEC), surface charge, sesquioxides and specific surface area (SSA) of three soil clay fractions (SCFs) (kaolinite-illite, smectite and allophane) on the retention of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) in soils. Physico-chemical properties of the SCFs before and after removing native carbon and/or sesquioxides were characterised, and the DOC adsorption-desorption tests were conducted by a batch method. Native organic carbon (OC)/sesquioxide removal treatments led to a small change in the CEC values of kaolinite-illite, but significant changes in those of smectite and allophane. The net negative surface charge increased in all samples with an increase in pH indicating their variable charge characteristics. The removal of native OC resulted in a slight increase in the net positive charge on soil clay surfaces, while sesquioxide removal increased the negative charge. Changes in the functional groups on the SCF surfaces contributed to the changes in CEC and zeta potential values. There was a strong relationship (R 2 = 0.93, p < 0.05) between the Langmuir maximum DOC adsorption capacity (Q max) and SSA. The Q max value also showed a moderately strong relationship (R 2 = 0.55, p < 0.05) with zeta potential (at pH 7). Q max was only poorly correlated with CEC and native OC content. Therefore, along with SSA, the surface charge and functional groups of SCFs played the key role in determining the adsorption affinity and hence retention of DOC in soils.

A critical review on characterization, human health risk assessment and mitigation of malodorous gaseous emission during the composting process.

Composting has emerged as a suitable method to convert or transform organic waste including manure, green waste, and food waste into valuable products with several advantages, such as high efficiency, cost feasibility, and being environmentally friendly. However, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), mainly malodorous gases, are the major concern and challenges to overcome in facilitating composting. Ammonia (NH3) and volatile sulfur compounds (VSCs), including hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and methyl mercaptan (CH4S), primarily contributed to the malodorous gases emission during the entire composting process due to their low olfactory threshold. These compounds are mainly emitted at the thermophilic phase, accounting for over 70% of total gas emissions during the whole process, whereas methane (CH4) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are commonly detected during the mesophilic and cooling phases. Therefore, the human health risk assessment of malodorous gases using various indexes such as ECi (maximum exposure concentration for an individual volatile compound EC), HR (non-carcinogenic risk), and CR (carcinogenic risk) has been evaluated and discussed. Also, several strategies such as maintaining optimal operating conditions, and adding bulking agents and additives (e.g., biochar and zeolite) to reduce malodorous emissions have been pointed out and highlighted. Biochar has specific adsorption properties such as high surface area and high porosity and contains various functional groups that can adsorb up to 60%-70% of malodorous gases emitted from composting. Notably, biofiltration emerged as a resilient and cost-effective technique, achieving up to 90% reduction in malodorous gases at the end-of-pipe. This study offers a comprehensive insight into the characterization of malodorous emissions during composting. Additionally, it emphasizes the need to address these issues on a larger scale and provides a promising outlook for future research.

Effects of microplastics on soil microorganisms and microbial functions in nutrients and carbon cycling - A review.

The harmful effects of microplastics (MPs) pollution in the soil ecosystem have drawn global attention in recent years. This paper critically reviews the effects of MPs on soil microbial diversity and functions in relation to nutrients and carbon cycling. Reports suggested that both plastisphere (MP-microbe consortium) and MP-contaminated soils had distinct and lower microbial diversity than that of non-contaminated soils. Alteration in soil physicochemical properties and microbial interactions within the plastisphere facilitated the enrichment of plastic-degrading microorganisms, including those involved in carbon (C) and nutrient cycling. MPs conferred a significant increase in the relative abundance of soil nitrogen (N)-fixing and phosphorus (P)-solubilizing bacteria, while decreased the abundance of soil nitrifiers and ammonia oxidisers. Depending on soil types, MPs increased bioavailable N and P contents and nitrous oxide emission in some instances. Furthermore, MPs regulated soil microbial functional activities owing to the combined toxicity of organic and inorganic contaminants derived from MPs and contaminants frequently encountered in the soil environment. However, a thorough understanding of the interactions among soil microorganisms, MPs and other contaminants still needs to develop. Since currently available reports are mostly based on short-term laboratory experiments, field investigations are needed to assess the long-term impact of MPs (at environmentally relevant concentration) on soil microorganisms and their functions under different soil types and agro-climatic conditions.

A comprehensive review on agricultural waste utilization through sustainable conversion techniques, with a focus on the additives effect on the fate of phosphorus and toxic elements during composting process.

The increasing trend of using agricultural wastes follows the concept of "waste to wealth" and is closely related to the themes of sustainable development goals (SDGs). Carbon-neutral technologies for waste management have not been critically reviewed yet. This paper reviews the technological trend of agricultural waste utilization, including composting, thermal conversion, and anaerobic digestion. Specifically, the effects of exogenous additives on the contents, fractionation, and fate of phosphorus (P) and potentially toxic elements (PTEs) during the composting process have been comprehensively reviewed in this article. The composting process can transform biomass-P and additive-born P into plant available forms. PTEs can be passivated during the composting process. Biochar can accelerate the passivation of PTEs in the composting process through different physiochemical interactions such as surface adsorption, precipitation, and cation exchange reactions. The addition of exogenous calcium, magnesium and phosphate in the compost can reduce the mobility of PTEs such as copper, cadmium, and zinc. Based on critical analysis, this paper recommends an eco-innovative perspective for the improvement and practical application of composting technology for the utilization of agricultural biowastes to meet the circular economy approach and achieve the SDGs.

Interactions between white and black carbon in water: A case study of concurrent aging of microplastics and biochar.

Microplastics and biochar, as particulate matter that is prevalent in the water environment, will inevitably encounter and interact with each other during environmental aging. The potential interaction of microplastics and biochar, and the associated impact on their environmental behavior remains largely unknown. In this study, we exposed microplastics and biochar concurrently to ultraviolet light to mimic the aging process, investigated the release and fluorescence characteristics of dissolved organic matter (DOM) in water, and analyzed the effects of co-existing microplastics and biochar on their sorption of organic contaminants. We demonstrate that early-stage interactions of microplastics and biochar could entangle to promote the release of DOM from biochar, while their long-term interactions after light irradiation resulted in the sorption of hydrophobic and small molecules of microbial byproduct-like DOM. Simultaneously, early-stage interactions of microplastics and biochar showed a promotion for sorption of organic contaminants with an increase of 5.3-17.7%. After aging, however, long-term interactions between microplastics and biochar made it no longer promote the sorption of organic contaminants due to the influence of heterogeneous aggregation. Our results provide new insights into the time-dependent interactions between microplastics and biochar and highlight the need to incorporate their interactions into future environmental risk assessments for microplastics in the water environment.