Gut Microbiota Association with Diverticular Disease Pathogenesis and Progression: A Systematic Review.

INTRODUCTION: Growing evidence supports the role of the intestinal microbiome in the development of different intestinal and extraintestinal diseases. Diverticular disease (DD) is one of the most common disorders in western countries. In the last years, different articles have suggested a possible role of the intestinal microbiome in DD pathogenesis and in the development of acute diverticulitis (AD). This systematic review aimed to clarify the current knowledge on the role of the intestinal microbiome in colonic diverticulitis in different stages according to the 2009 PRISMA guidelines. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Two independent reviewers searched the literature in a systematic manner through online databases, including Medline, Scopus, Embase, Cochrane Oral Health Group Specialized Register, ProQuest Dissertations and Theses Database, and Google Scholar. Patients with any stage of disease were included. The Newcastle-Ottawa scale for case-control and cohort studies was used for the quality assessment of the selected articles. RESULTS: Overall, nine studies were included in the review. Only one article was focused on patients with AD, while all other articles only considered patients with DD without acute inflammation signs. Enterobacteriaceae seems to be the microbiota most associated with the disease, followed by Bifidobacteria. CONCLUSIONS: All the included studies showed great heterogeneity in population characteristics and sampling methods. Therefore, given the high prevalence of colonic diverticulitis in the general population, further studies are needed to clarify the role of the intestinal microbiome, paving the way to new target therapies with important social implications.

A Pilot Study on Clinical Scores, Immune Cell Modulation, and Microbiota Composition in Allergic Patients with Rhinitis and Asthma Treated with a Probiotic Preparation.

BACKGROUND: Specific drugs and/or immunotherapies are widely used to treat allergies, but drug-induced adverse effects recently led to explore new additional strategies. We studied whether a probiotic preparation (iPROB®; Anallergo SpA, Florence, Italy) is effective in allergic patients and the mechanisms underlying clinical outcomes. METHODS: Eligible patients (n = 28), all suffering from allergic rhinitis with/without bronchial asthma, were consecutively recruited at the Allergology Medical Unit (Novara, Italy) and treated with this probiotic. From each patient, we collected blood and stool samples at the baseline, after 60 days of probiotic supplementation, and after 60 days from probiotic discontinuation. In each blood sample, the percentage of hematopoietic stem cells, eosinophils, and basophils was measured by FACS. To analyze stool microbiota composition, genomic DNA was extracted, bacterial 16S DNA libraries sequenced by Illumina platform (Miseq), and raw sequences processed. Generated data were statistically analyzed. RESULTS: Probiotic-treated patients showed a significant decrease in Average Rhinitis Total Symptom Score (d = -10.5714), and Visual Analog Scale (d = -2.00) clinical indices, as well as important improvements in quality of life. In whole blood, a significant reduction in the percentage of activated eosinophils and basophils was determined, and this effect persisted after specific cell stimulation. Consistently, the serum levels of IL-4 and IL-5 decreased after probiotic treatment, suggesting a reduction in the Th2 cytokine profile. In addition, microbiome genomic analysis (n = 6) showed an increase in microbiome biodiversity, which positively correlates with clinical and cellular data. CONCLUSION: Present study suggests that iPROB® preparation has clinical/biological properties to be a valid add-on supplementation in allergic patients with asthma and rhinitis.

Targeting microbiota in dietary obesity management: a systematic review on randomized control trials in adults.

Obesity is an alarming public health problem. Tailored nutritional therapy is advisable since emerging evidence on complex cross-talks among multifactorial agents. In this picture, the gut microbiota is highly individualized and intricately dependent on dietary patterns, with implications for obesity management. Most of the papers on the topic are observational and often conflicting. This review aimed to systematically organize the body of evidence on microbiota deriving from dietary trials in adult obesity giving the most certain phylogenetic, and metabolomic signatures in relation to both the host metabolism and phenotype changes published until now. We retrieved 18 randomized control trials on 1385 subjects with obesity who underwent several dietary interventions, including standard diet and healthy dietary regimens. Some phyla and species were more related to diets rich in fibers and others to healthy diets. Weight loss, metabolism improvements, inflammatory markers decrease were specifically related to different microorganisms or functions. The Prevotella/Bacteroides ratio was one of the most reported predictors. People with the burden of obesity comorbidities had the most significant taxonomic changes in parallel with a general improvement. These data emphasize the possibility of using symbiotic approaches involving tailored diets, microbiota characteristics, and maybe drugs to treat obesity and metabolic disorders. We encourage Authors to search for specific phylogenetic associations beyond a too generally reported Firmicutes/Bacteroides ratio.

Aging hampers neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) efficacy.

BACKGROUND: NETosis is a neutrophil-mediated defense mechanism during which DNA and enzymes are extruded forming a network (NETs) trapping and killing different pathogens. NETosis is reduced in both mice and humans during aging. AIMS: We explored the difference in the efficacy of NETs released in elderly (> 65 years) versus adults (20-50 years) subjects in inhibiting Staphylococcus aureus growth and activating the growth of keratinocytes. METHODS: Neutrophil granulocytes, obtained from venous blood both in healthy elderly and adult subjects, were stimulated by LPS (0-250 µg/ml) to induce the formation of NET. NETs were quantified by SYBR Green staining and growth inhibition of S. aureus was evaluated by disk diffusion test. Furthermore, NETs (0-500 ng/ml) were added to immortalized human keratinocytes (HaCaT cells), and their proliferation was evaluated by MTT assay after 24 h. Finally, the DNA size of NETs was evaluated by flow cytometry after SYBR Green staining. RESULTS: Greater production of NETs was observed in elderly subjects than in adults, but these NETs showed reduced bactericidal capacity and HaCaT cells' proliferation stimulation. The activities of the NETs are related to the size of the extruded DNA threads, and when NETs size was analyzed, DNA from elderly showed a higher size compared to that obtained by adults. DISCUSSION: Unexpected results showed aging-related NETs structural modification resulting in both a lower antimicrobial activity and keratinocyte proliferation stimulation compared to NETs obtained from adults. CONCLUSIONS: The NETs DNA size observed in elderly subjects has not been previously reported and could be part of other pathogenic mechanisms observed in aging.

Bayesian estimation of post-test probability of Candida glabrata fungemia by means of serum creatinine.

Fungemia is a life-threatening condition associated with high mortality; the most frequently isolated genus is Candida. Candida glabrata is of particular concern because of its increasing resistance to azoles. We evaluated common lab tests accessible by almost all healthcare professionals to estimate the post-test probability of recovery of C. glabrata from a blood culture collected by venipuncture, positive for fungi identified by microscopic examination. Patients with blood cultures positive for C. glabrata had significantly higher median values of serum creatinine (P=0.006), and a value of ≥1.45 mg/dL was the best cut-off in discriminating C. glabrata from other Candida spp., with 0.67 [95% Confidence Interval (CI): 0.49-0.85] sensitivity and 0.75 (95% CI: 0.66-0.84) specificity; Youden's J statistic: 0.42. The receiver operator characteristic curve analysis showed an area under the curve of 0.718 (95% CI: 0.603-0.833); P=0.001. Therefore, given a pre-test probability of 24% and applying the Bayes' theorem, the post-test probability of C. glabrata fungemia with creatinine values ≥1.45 mg/dL increased to 45.8%. In conclusion, we showed how the probability of recovery of C. glabrata from blood cultures collected by venipuncture and positive for fungi can be better estimated using concurrent creatinine values.

Tomato responses to Funneliformis mosseae during the early stages of arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis.

The concept of symbiosis can be described as a continuum of interactions between organisms ranging from mutualism to parasitism that can also change over time. Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) are among the most important obligate plant symbionts. Once the symbiosis is well established, mycorrhizal plants are more tolerant to biotic or abiotic stresses, so the AMF relationship with the host plant is generally described as mutualistic. However, little is known about AMF effects on the plant during the early stages of root colonization. The aim of this work was to assess the type of interaction (mutualistic or parasitic) between the arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungus Funelliformis mosseae and Solanum lycopersicum cv. Rio Grande plants, at 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after inoculation (DAI), considering that in the adopted experimental design (one plant per pot), the seedling was the only carbon source for fungus development in the absence of common mycorrhizal networks with other plants. At each harvest, mycorrhizal colonization, shoot and root weights, morphometric parameters, and photosynthetic efficiency were evaluated. The presence of the AM fungus in the tomato root system was observed starting from the 14th DAI, and its level increased over time. Few effects of the fungus presence on the considered parameters were observed, and no stress symptoms ever appeared; so, we can state that the fungus behaved as a mutualistic symbiont during the early stages of plant growth. Moreover, a trend towards a positive effect on plant growth was observed at 28 DAI in mycorrhizal plants.

STAble: a novel approach to de novo assembly of RNA-seq data and its application in a metabolic model network based metatranscriptomic workflow.

BACKGROUND: De novo assembly of RNA-seq data allows the study of transcriptome in absence of a reference genome either if data is obtained from a single organism or from a mixed sample as in metatranscriptomics studies. Given the high number of sequences obtained from NGS approaches, a critical step in any analysis workflow is the assembly of reads to reconstruct transcripts thus reducing the complexity of the analysis. Despite many available tools show a good sensitivity, there is a high percentage of false positives due to the high number of assemblies considered and it is likely that the high frequency of false positive is underestimated by currently used benchmarks. The reconstruction of not existing transcripts may false the biological interpretation of results as - for example - may overestimate the identification of "novel" transcripts. Moreover, benchmarks performed are usually based on RNA-seq data from annotated genomes and assembled transcripts are compared to annotations and genomes to identify putative good and wrong reconstructions, but these tests alone may lead to accept a particular type of false positive as true, as better described below. RESULTS: Here we present a novel methodology of de novo assembly, implemented in a software named STAble (Short-reads Transcriptome Assembler). The novel concept of this assembler is that the whole reads are used to determine possible alignments instead of using smaller k-mers, with the aim of reducing the number of chimeras produced. Furthermore, we applied a new set of benchmarks based on simulated data to better define the performance of assembly method and carefully identifying true reconstructions. STAble was also used to build a prototype workflow to analyse metatranscriptomics data in connection to a steady state metabolic modelling algorithm. This algorithm was used to produce high quality metabolic interpretations of small gene expression sets obtained from already published RNA-seq data that we assembled with STAble. CONCLUSIONS: The presented results, albeit preliminary, clearly suggest that with this approach is possible to identify informative reactions not directly revealed by raw transcriptomic data.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting pseudomonads improve yield, quality and nutritional value of tomato: a field study.

The aim of this work was to assess the effects of plant-beneficial microorganisms (two Pseudomonas strains and a mixed mycorrhizal inoculum, alone or in combination) on the quality of tomato fruits of plants grown in the field and subjected to reduced fertilization. Pseudomonas strain 19Fv1T was newly characterized during this study. The size and quality of the fruits (concentration of sugars, organic acids and vitamin C) were assessed. The microorganisms positively affected the flower and fruit production and the concentrations of sugars and vitamins in the tomato fruits. In particular, the most important effect induced by arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi was an improvement of citric acid concentration, while bacteria positively modulated sugar production and the sweetness of the tomatoes. The novelty of the present work is the application of soil microorganisms in the field, in a real industrial tomato farm. This approach provided direct information about the application of inocula, allowed the reduction of chemical inputs and positively influenced tomato quality.

AM fungi and PGP pseudomonads increase flowering, fruit production, and vitamin content in strawberry grown at low nitrogen and phosphorus levels.

There is increasing interest in the quality of crops because of the implications concerning health, economic revenue, and food quality. Here we tested if inoculation with a mixture of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and/or two strains of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB), in conditions of reduced chemical inputs, affects the quality and yield of strawberry fruits. Fruit quality was measured by concentrations of soluble sugars, various organic acids, and two vitamins (ascorbic and folic acid). Co-inoculation with the AMF and each of the two PGPB resulted in increased flower and fruit production, larger fruit size, and higher concentrations of sugars and ascorbic and folic acid in comparison with fruits of uninoculated plants. These results provide further evidence that rhizospheric microorganisms affect fruit crop quality and show that they do so even under conditions of reduced chemical fertilization and can thus be exploited for sustainable agriculture.

Maize development and grain quality are differentially affected by mycorrhizal fungi and a growth-promoting pseudomonad in the field.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) can increase the growth and yield of major crops, and improve the quality of fruits and leaves. However, little is known about their impact on seed composition. Plants were inoculated with AM fungi and/or the bacterial strain Pseudomonas fluorescens Pf4 and harvested after 7 months of growth in open-field conditions. Plant growth parameters were measured (biomass, length and circumference of spikes, number of grains per cob, grain yield, and grain size) and protein, lipid, and starch content in grains were determined. Plant growth and yield were increased by inoculation with the microorganisms. Moreover, spikes and grains of inoculated plants were bigger than those produced by uninoculated plants. Regarding grain composition, the bacterial strain increased grain starch content, especially the digestible components, whereas AM fungi-enhanced protein, especially zein, content. Plant inoculation with the fluorescent pseudomonad and mycorrhizal fungi resulted in additive effects on grain composition. Overall, results showed that the bacterial strain and the AM fungi promoted maize growth cultivated in field conditions and differentially affected the grain nutritional content. Consequently, targeted plant inoculation with beneficial microorganisms can lead to commodities fulfilling consumer and industrial requirements.

The Impact of Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria-Based Biostimulant Alone or in Combination with Commercial Inoculum on Tomato Native Rhizosphere Microbiota and Production: An Open-Field Trial.

The agricultural sector is currently encountering significant challenges due to the effects of climate change, leading to negative consequences for crop productivity and global food security. In this context, traditional agricultural practices have been inadequate in addressing the fast-evolving challenges while maintaining environmental sustainability. A possible alternative to traditional agricultural management is represented by using beneficial micro-organisms that, once applied as bioinoculants, may enhance crop resilience and adaptability, thereby mitigating the adverse effects of environmental stressors and boosting productivity. Tomato is one of the most important crops worldwide, playing a central role in the human diet. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a nitrogen-fixing bacterial-based biostimulant (Azospirillum sp., Azotobacter sp., and Rhizobium sp.) in combination or not with a commercial inoculum Micomix (Rhizoglomus irregulare, Funnelliformis mosseae, Funnelliformis caledonium, Bacillus licheniformis, and Bacillus mucilaginosus) (MYC) on the native rhizosphere communities and tomato production. Bacterial populations in the different samples were characterized using an environmental metabarcoding approach. The bioinocula effect on the native rhizosphere microbiota resulted in significant variation both in alpha and beta diversity and in a specific signature associated with the presence of biostimulants.

A Study of Metabolites from Basidiomycota and Their Activities against Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

The World Health Organization (WHO) promotes research aimed at developing new drugs from natural compounds. Fungi are important producers of bioactive molecules, and they are often effective against other fungi and/or bacteria and are thus a potential source of new antibiotics. Basidiomycota crude extracts, which have previously been proven to be active against Pseudomonas aeruginosa ATCC27853, were subjected to liquid chromatographic separation by RP-18, leading to six macro-fractions for each fungal extract. The various fractions were tested for their bioactivities against P. aeruginosa ATCC27853, and ten of them were characterized by HPLC-HRMS and NMR. Further chromatographic separations were performed for a few selected macro-fractions, yielding seven pure compounds. Bioactivity was mainly found in the lipophilic fractions containing fatty acids and their derivatives, such as hydroxy or keto C-18 unsaturated acids, and in various complex lipids, such as glycolipids and related compounds. More hydrophilic molecules, such as GABA, phenethylamine, two chromogenic anthraquinoids and pistillarin, were also isolated, and their antibacterial activities were recorded. The novelties of this research are as follows: (i) the genera Cortinarius and Mycena have never been investigated before for the synthesis of antibiotic compounds; (ii) the molecules produced by these genera are known, but their production has never been reported in the investigated fungi; (iii) the determination of bacterial siderophore synthesis inhibition by certain compounds from Cortinarius and Mycena.

Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plant growth-promoting pseudomonads increases anthocyanin concentration in strawberry fruits (Fragaria x ananassa var. Selva) in conditions of reduced fertilization.

Anthocyanins are a group of common phenolic compounds in plants. They are mainly detected in flowers and fruits, are believed to play different important roles such as in the attraction of animals and seed dispersal, and also in the increase of the antioxidant response in tissues directly or indirectly affected by biotic or abiotic stress factors. As a major group of secondary metabolites in plants commonly consumed as food, they are of importance in both the food industry and human nutrition. It is known that arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi can influence the plant secondary metabolic pathways such as the synthesis of essential oils in aromatic plants, of secondary metabolites in roots, and increase flavonoid concentration. Plant Growth-Promoting Bacteria (PGPB) are able to increase plant growth, improving plant nutrition and supporting plant development under natural or stressed conditions. Various studies confirmed that a number of bacterial species living on and inside the root system are beneficial for plant growth, yield and crop quality. In this work it is shown that inoculation with AM fungi and/or with selected and tested Pseudomonas strains, under conditions of reduced fertilization, increases anthocyanin concentration in the fruits of strawberry.

The Impact of a Commercial Biostimulant on the Grape Mycobiota of Vitis vinifera cv. Barbera.

Reducing the use of fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides in order to limit environmental pollution and health risks for agricultural operators and consumers is one of the goals of European regulations. In fact, the European Commission developed a package of measures (the European Green Deal) to promote the sustainable use of natural resources and strengthen the resilience of European agri-food systems. As a consequence, new plant protection products, such as biostimulants, have been proposed as alternatives to agrochemicals. Their application in agroecosystems could potentially open new scenarios regarding the microbiota. In particular, the vineyard microbiota and the microbiota on the grape surface can be affected by biostimulants and lead to different wine features. The aim of this work was to assess the occurrence of a possible variation in the mycobiota due to the biostimulant application. Therefore, our attention has been focused on the yeast community of grape bunches from vines subjected to the phytostimulant BION®50WG treatment. This work was carried out in the CREA-VE experimental vineyard of Vitis vinifera cv. Barbera in Asti (Piedmont, Italy). The composition of fungal communities on grapes from three experimental conditions such as IPM (integrated pest management), IPM+BION®50WG, and IPM+water foliar nebulization was compared by a metabarcoding approach. Our results revealed the magnitude of alpha and beta diversity, and the microbial biodiversity index and specific fungal signatures were highlighted by comparing the abundance of yeast and filamentous fungi in IPM and BION®50WG treatments. No significant differences in the mycobiota of grapevines subjected to the three treatments were detected.

PGPB and/or AM Fungi Consortia Affect Tomato Native Rhizosphere Microbiota.

Tomatoes are one of the most important crops worldwide and also play a central role in the human diet. Microbial consortia are microorganism associations, often employed as bioinoculants, that can interact with the native rhizosphere microbiota. The aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of a bacterial-based biostimulant (Pseudomonas fluorescens and Bacillus amyloliquefaciens) (PSBA) in combination, or not, with a commercial inoculum Micomix (Rhizoglomus irregulare, Funnelliformis mosseae, Funnelliformis caledonium, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus mucilaginosus) (MYC) on the native rhizosphere communities and on tomato production. The trial was carried out using Solanum lycopersicum in an open field as follows: control full NPK (CFD), control reduced NPK (CRD), MYC, PSBA, PSBA + MYC. Bacterial population in the different samples were characterized using a next generation sequencing approach. The bioinocula effect on the native rhizosphere microbiota resulted in significant variation both in alpha and beta diversity and in a specific signature associated with the presence of biostimulants, especially in the presence of co-inoculation (PSBA + MYC). In particular, the high initial biodiversity shifts in the community composition occurred and consisted in the increase in the abundance of genera correlated to the soil acidification and in an enhanced density of nitrogen-fixing microbes. The results also highlighted the well-known rhizosphere effect.

Thymus vulgaris Essential Oil in Beta-Cyclodextrin for Solid-State Pharmaceutical Applications.

Antimicrobial resistance related to the misuse of antibiotics is a well-known current topic. Their excessive use in several fields has led to enormous selective pressure on pathogenic and commensal bacteria, driving the evolution of antimicrobial resistance genes with severe impacts on human health. Among all the possible strategies, a viable one could be the development of medical features that employ essential oils (EOs), complex natural mixtures extracted from different plant organs, rich in organic compounds showing, among others, antiseptic properties. In this work, green extracted essential oil of Thymus vulgaris was included in cyclic oligosaccharides cyclodextrins (CD) and prepared in the form of tablets. This essential oil has been shown to have a strong transversal efficacy both as an antifungal and as an antibacterial agent. Its inclusion allows its effective use because an extension of the exposure time to the active compounds is obtained and, therefore, a more marked efficacy, especially against biofilm-producing microorganisms such as P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, was registered. The efficacy of the tablet against candidiasis opens their possible use as a chewable tablet against oral candidiasis and as a vaginal tablet against vaginal candidiasis. Moreover, the registered wide efficacy is even more positive since the proposed approach can be defined as effective, safe, and green. In fact, the natural mixture of the essential oil is produced by the steam current method; therefore, the manufacturer employs substances that are not harmful, with very low production and management costs.

Distinct Signatures of Tumor-Associated Microbiota and Metabolome in Low-Grade vs. High-Grade Dysplastic Colon Polyps: Inference of Their Role in Tumor Initiation and Progression.

According to the driver-passenger model for colorectal cancer (CRC), the tumor-associated microbiota is a dynamic ecosystem of bacterial species where bacteria with carcinogenic features linked to CRC initiation are defined as "drivers", while opportunistic bacteria colonizing more advanced tumor stages are known as "passengers". We reasoned that also gut microbiota-associated metabolites may be differentially enriched according to tumor stage, and be potential determinants of CRC development. Thus, we characterized the mucosa- and lumen-associated microbiota (MAM and LAM, respectively) and mucosa-associated metabolites in low- vs. high-grade dysplastic colon polyps from 78 patients. We show that MAM, obtained with a new biopsy-preserving approach, and LAM differ in composition and α/ß-diversity. By stratifying patients for polyp histology, we found that bacteria proposed as passengers by previous studies colonized high-grade dysplastic adenomas, whereas driver taxa were enriched in low-grade polyps. Furthermore, we report altered "mucosa-associated metabolite" levels in low- vs. high-grade groups. Integrated microbiota-metabolome analysis suggests the involvement of the gut microbiota in the production and consumption of these metabolites. Altogether, our findings support the involvement of bacterial species and associated metabolites in CRC mucosal homeostasis in a tumor-stage-specific manner. These distinct signatures may be used to distinguish low-grade from high-grade dysplastic polyps.

Current Techniques to Study Beneficial Plant-Microbe Interactions.

Many different experimental approaches have been applied to elaborate and study the beneficial interactions between soil bacteria and plants. Some of these methods focus on changes to the plant and others are directed towards assessing the physiology and biochemistry of the beneficial plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB). Here, we provide an overview of some of the current techniques that have been employed to study the interaction of plants with PGPB. These techniques include the study of plant microbiomes; the use of DNA genome sequencing to understand the genes encoded by PGPB; the use of transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics to study PGPB and plant gene expression; genome editing of PGPB; encapsulation of PGPB inoculants prior to their use to treat plants; imaging of plants and PGPB; PGPB nitrogenase assays; and the use of specialized growth chambers for growing and monitoring bacterially treated plants.

Impact of Plant-Beneficial Bacterial Inocula on the Resident Bacteriome: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives.

The inoculation of plant growth-promoting bacteria (PGPB) as biofertilizers is one of the most efficient and sustainable strategies of rhizosphere manipulation leading to increased plant biomass and yield and improved plant health, as well as the ameliorated nutritional value of fruits and edible seeds. During the last decades, exciting, but heterogeneous, results have been obtained growing PGPB inoculated plants under controlled, stressful, and open field conditions. On the other hand, the possible impact of the PGPB deliberate release on the resident microbiota has been less explored and the little available information is contradictory. This review aims at filling this gap: after a brief description of the main mechanisms used by PGPB, we focus our attention on the process of PGPB selection and formulation and we provide some information on the EU regulation for microbial inocula. Then, the concept of PGPB inocula as a tool for rhizosphere engineering is introduced and the possible impact of bacterial inoculant on native bacterial communities is discussed, focusing on those bacterial species that are included in the EU regulation and on other promising bacterial species that are not yet included in the EU regulation.

Influence of Sex on the Microbiota of the Human Face.

The role of the microbiota in health and disease has long been recognized and, so far, the cutaneous microbiota in humans has been widely investigated. The research regarded mainly the microbiota variations between body districts and disease skin states (i.e., atopic dermatitis, psoriasis, acne). In fact, relatively little information is available about the composition of the healthy skin microbiota. The cosmetic industry is especially interested in developing products that maintain and/or improve a healthy skin microbiota. Therefore, in the present work, the authors chose to investigate in detail the structure and composition of the basal bacterial community of the face. Ninety-six cheek samples (48 women and 48 men) were collected in the same season and the same location in central northern Italy. Bacterial DNA was extracted, the 16S rDNA gene was amplified by PCR, the obtained amplicons were subjected to next generation sequencing. The principal members of the community were identified at the genus level, and statistical analyses showed significant variations between the two sexes. This study identified abundant members of the facial skin microbiota that were rarely reported before in the literature and demonstrated the differences between male and female microbiota in terms of both community structure and composition.