Rates and causes of death after release from incarceration among 1 471 526 people in eight high-income and middle-income countries: an individual participant data meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Formerly incarcerated people have exceptionally poor health profiles and are at increased risk of preventable mortality when compared with their general population peers. However, not enough is known about the epidemiology of mortality in this population-specifically the rates, causes, and timing of death in specific subgroups and regions-to inform the development of targeted, evidence-based responses. We aimed to document the incidence, timing, causes, and risk factors for mortality after release from incarceration. METHODS: We analysed linked administrative data from the multi-national Mortality After Release from Incarceration Consortium (MARIC) study. We examined mortality outcomes for 1 471 526 people released from incarceration in eight countries (Australia, Brazil, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Scotland, Sweden, and the USA) from 1980 to 2018, across 10 534 441 person-years of follow-up (range 0-24 years per person). We combined data from 18 cohort studies using two-step individual participant data meta-analyses to estimate pooled all-cause and cause-specific crude mortality rates (CMRs) per 100 000 person-years, for specific time periods (first, daily from days 1-14; second, weekly from weeks 3-12; third, weeks 13-52 combined; fourth, weeks 53 and over combined; and fifth, total follow-up) after release, overall and stratified by age, sex, and region. FINDINGS: 75 427 deaths were recorded. The all-cause CMR during the first week following release (1612 [95% CI 1048-2287]) was higher than during all other time periods (incidence rate ratio [IRR] compared with week 2: 1·5 [95% CI 1·2-1·8], I2=26·0%, weeks 3-4: 2·0 [1·5-2·6], I2=53·0%, and weeks 9-12: 2·2 [1·6-3·0], I2=70·5%). The highest cause-specific mortality rates during the first week were due to alcohol and other drug poisoning (CMR 657 [95% CI 332-1076]), suicide (135 [36-277]), and cardiovascular disease (71 [16-153]). We observed considerable variation in cause-specific CMRs over time since release and across regions. Pooled all-cause CMRs were similar between males (731 [95% CI 630-839]) and females (660 [560-767]) and were higher in older age groups. INTERPRETATION: The markedly elevated rate of death in the first week post-release underscores an urgent need for investment in evidence-based, coordinated transitional healthcare, including treatment for mental illness and substance use disorders to prevent post-release deaths due to suicide and overdose. Temporal variations in rates and causes of death highlight the need for routine monitoring of post-release mortality. FUNDING: Australia's National Health and Medical Research Council.

Detention of children and adolescents under mental health legislation: a scoping review of prevalence, risk factors, and legal frameworks.

BACKGROUND: For individuals with severe mental illness, involuntary assessment and/or treatment (hereafter detention) can be a necessary intervention to support recovery and may even be lifesaving. Despite this, little is known about how often these interventions are used for children and adolescents. METHODS: This global scoping review set out to: (1) map the current evidence around mental health detentions of children and adolescents (< 18 years); (2) identify the clinical, sociodemographic, and behavioural factors associated with detention; and (3) document the views of professionals and young people on the implementation of mental health legislation. RESULTS: After searching databases of peer-reviewed literature and citation chaining, 42 articles from 15 jurisdictions were included. About one fifth of psychiatric admissions in national register data were detentions, however trends were only available for a few high-income Western countries. The circumstances justifying detention and the criteria authorising detention varied between studies, with a mix of clinical factors and observed behaviours reported as the reason(s) warranting/precipitating a detention. Particular groups were more likely to experience detention, such as children and adolescents from minority ethnic communities and those with a documented history of abuse. There was a notable absence of qualitative research exploring the views of professionals or children and adolescents on detention. CONCLUSION: Further research is needed to explore the impact of detention on those aged < 18 years, including national register-based studies and qualitative studies. This is particularly relevant in nations currently undergoing legislative reform.

Adult Mental Health Presentations to Emergency Departments in Victoria, Australia between January 2018 and October 2020: Changes Associated with COVID-19 Pandemic Public Health Restrictions.

The COVID-19 pandemic and associated public health measures altered patterns of help-seeking for mental health, with increases in emergency department utilisation reported. We examined the association between COVID-19 restrictions and adult emergency department (ED) mental health presentations in Victoria, Australia, through secondary analysis of data from 39 public EDs across the state. Participants were all patients (18+ years) presenting between 1 January 2018 and 31 October 2020 with mental health or intentional self-harm. The main outcome was number of presentations for each mental health condition, by patient age, socioeconomic status (SES), location, and ED triage category. We used a Poisson regression model to compare predicted monthly ED presentations based on trends from 2018, 2019 and 2020 (up to 31 March), with observed presentations during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic (1 April to 31 October 2020). There was an average of 4,967 adult mental health presentations per month pre-COVID-19 (1 January-31 March 2020) and 5,054 per month during the COVID-19 period (1 April-31 October 2020). Compared to predicted incidence, eating disorder presentations increased 24.0% in the COVID-19 period, primarily among higher SES females aged 18-24 years. Developmental/behavioural disorder presentations decreased by 19.7% for all age groups. Pandemic restrictions were associated with overall increases in monthly adult ED presentations for mental health, with some disorders increasing and others decreasing. Accessibility of acute mental health services needs to be addressed to meet changing demand and ensure services are responsive to changes in presentations resulting from future public health challenges.

Understanding suicidal transitions in Australian adults: protocol for the LifeTrack prospective longitudinal cohort study.

BACKGROUND: The factors that influence transition from suicidal ideation to a suicide attempt or remission of suicidal thoughts are poorly understood. Despite an abundance of research on risk factors for suicidal ideation, no large-scale longitudinal population-based studies have specifically recruited people with suicidal ideation to examine the mechanisms underlying critical transitions to either suicide attempt or recovery from suicidal ideation. Without longitudinal data on the psychological, behavioural, and social determinants of suicide attempt and the remission of suicidal ideation, we are unlikely to see major gains in the prevention of suicide. AIM: The LifeTrack Project is a population-based longitudinal cohort study that aims to identify key modifiable risk and protective factors that predict the transition from suicidal ideation to suicide attempt or remission of suicidal ideation. We will assess theory-informed risk and protective factors using validated and efficient measures to identify distinct trajectories reflecting changes in severity of suicidal ideation and transition to suicide attempt over three years. METHODS: A three-year prospective population-based longitudinal cohort study will be conducted with adults from the general Australian population who initially report suicidal ideation (n = 842). Eligibility criteria include recent suicidal ideation (past 30 days), aged 18 years or older, living in Australia and fluent in English. Those with a suicide attempt in past 30 days or who are unable to participate in a long-term study will be excluded. Participants will be asked to complete online assessments related to psychopathology, cognition, psychological factors, social factors, mental health treatment use, and environmental exposures at baseline and every six months during this three-year period. One week of daily measurement bursts (ecological momentary assessments) at yearly intervals will also capture short-term fluctuations in suicidal ideation, perceived burdensomeness, thwarted belongingness, capability for suicide, and distress. CONCLUSION: This study is intended to identify potential targets for novel and tailored therapies for people experiencing suicidal ideation and improve targeting of suicide prevention programs. Even modest improvements in current treatments may lead to important reductions in suicide attempts and deaths. STUDY REGISTRATION: Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry identifier: ACTRN12623000433606.

Suicides in Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people following hospital admission for suicidal ideation and self-harm: A retrospective cohort data linkage study from the Northern Territory.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to explore risk factors for suicide in Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people following hospital admission for suicidal ideation and self-harm in the Northern Territory, Australia to help clarify opportunities for improved care and intervention for these population groups. METHODS: Individuals with at least one hospital admission involving suicidal ideation and/or self-harm between 1 July 2001 and 31 December 2013 were retrospectively recruited and followed up using linked mortality records to 31 December 2014. Survival analyses stratified by Indigenous status identified socio-demographic and clinical characteristics from index hospital admissions associated with suicide. RESULTS: Just over half of the 4391 cohort members identified as Aboriginal (n = 2304; 52.4%). By 2014, 281 deaths were observed comprising 68 suicides, representing a 2.6% and 2.0% probability of suicide for Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people, respectively. After adjusting for other characteristics, a higher risk of suicide was associated with male sex (Aboriginal adjusted hazard ratio: 4.14; 95% confidence interval: [1.76, 9.75]; non-Aboriginal adjusted hazard ratio: 5.96; 95% confidence interval: [1.98, 17.88]) and repeat hospital admissions involving self-harm (Aboriginal adjusted hazard ratio: 1.37; 95% confidence interval: [1.21, 1.55]; non-Aboriginal adjusted hazard ratio: 1.29; 95% confidence interval: [1.10, 1.51]). Severe mental disorders were associated with a four times higher risk of suicide (adjusted hazard ratio: 4.23; 95% confidence interval: [1.93, 9.27]) in Aboriginal people only. CONCLUSION: The findings highlight non-clinical risk factors for suicide that suggest the need for comprehensive psychosocial assessment tailored to Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people hospitalised with suicidal ideation or self-harm. Implementing appropriate management and aftercare within a broader public health framework is needed to support recovery and reduce long-term suicide risk in the community, especially for Aboriginal people and males.

Self-harm and suicide attempts among incarcerated lesbian, gay and bisexual people in Australia.

OBJECTIVES: Guided by minority stress theory, we explored the association between sexual identity, justice system involvement, self-harm and suicide attempts, among a cohort of incarcerated adults in Australia. METHODS: A sample of 2698 adults incarcerated in Queensland and Western Australia were surveyed between 1 August 2008 and 12 August 2016 about their current psychological distress, mental health diagnoses, contact with mental health services, and lifetime and recent self-harm and suicide attempts. We used multivariable logistic regression to explore the relationship between sexual orientation, prior criminal justice system involvement, mental health and demographic factors. RESULTS: Five percent of the sample identified as gay, lesbian or bisexual, with 37% of lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted individuals reporting that they had self-harmed (vs 14% of heterosexual peers; χ2 = 52.4; p < 0.001) and 49% reporting a history of at least one suicide attempt (vs 23%; χ2 = 49.2; p < 0.001). Lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted people were 2.1 times (95% confidence interval: [1.4, 3.3]) and 1.8 times (95% confidence interval: [1.2, 2.8]) more likely to report a history of self-harm and suicide attempt, respectively, than non-lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted respondents. CONCLUSION: Intersectionality theory suggests that people who are navigating two or more marginalised identities often experience a compounding of internal and external stressors. Consistent with that theory, lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted people who experience incarceration may be at particularly high risk of self-harm and suicidal behaviour. Custodial settings should both improve cultural competency for frontline staff working with lesbian, gay, bisexual and other same-sex attracted individuals and improve access to mental health services during incarceration.

Sex differences in suicide, suicidal ideation, and self-harm after release from incarceration: a systematic review and meta-analysis.

PURPOSE: People released from incarceration are at increased risk of suicide compared to the general population. We aimed to synthesise evidence on the incidence of and sex differences in suicide, suicidal ideation, and self-harm after release from incarceration. METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, PsycINFO, Web of Science and PubMed between 1 January 1970 and 14 October 2021 for suicide, suicidal ideation, and self-harm after release from incarceration (PROSPERO registration: CRD42020208885). We calculated pooled crude mortality rates (CMRs) and standardised mortality ratios (SMRs) for suicide, overall and by sex, using random-effects models. We calculated a pooled incidence rate ratio (IRR) comparing rates of suicide by sex. RESULTS: Twenty-nine studies were included. The pooled suicide CMR per 100,000 person years was 114.5 (95%CI 97.0, 132.0, I2 = 99.2%) for non-sex stratified samples, 139.5 (95% CI 91.3, 187.8, I2 = 88.6%) for women, and 121.8 (95% CI 82.4, 161.2, I2 = 99.1%) for men. The suicide SMR was 7.4 (95% CI 5.4, 9.4, I2 = 98.3%) for non-sex stratified samples, 14.9 for women (95% CI 6.7, 23.1, I2 = 88.3%), and 4.6 for men (95% CI 1.3, 7.8, I2 = 98.8%). The pooled suicide IRR comparing women to men was 1.1 (95% CI 0.9, 1.4, I2 = 82.2%). No studies reporting self-harm or suicidal ideation after incarceration reported sex differences. CONCLUSION: People released from incarceration are greater than seven times more likely to die by suicide than the general population. The rate of suicide is higher after release than during incarceration, with the elevation in suicide risk (compared with the general population) three times higher for women than for men. Greater effort to prevent suicide after incarceration, particularly among women, is urgently needed.

Working out dads (WOD): a study protocol for a randomised controlled trial of a group-based peer support intervention for men experiencing mental health difficulties in early fatherhood.

BACKGROUND: Approximately one in ten men experience mental health difficulties during the early years of fatherhood, and these can have negative impacts on children and families. However, few evidence-based interventions targeting fathers' mental health are available. The aim of the trial is to evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of Working Out Dads (WOD) - a facilitated peer support group intervention for fathers of young children, in reducing psychological distress and other mental health symptoms. METHODS: This trial will employ a parallel-arm randomised controlled trial (RCT) to evaluate the effectiveness and cost effectiveness of WOD peer support group intervention compared to usual care (a 30-min mental health and service focused phone consultation with a health professional). A total of 280 fathers of young children (aged 0-4 years) who are experiencing mental health difficulties and/or are at risk of poor mental health will be recruited. Randomisation and analyses will be at the level of the individual participant. The primary outcome is psychological distress symptoms, measured by the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) from baseline to 24 weeks post randomisation. A range of secondary outcomes will be assessed including suicidal ideation; mental health disorders, specific symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress; social support, quality of life, health service use, and health care costs. Data will be collected at baseline, 10- and 24 weeks post-randomisation. DISCUSSION: This trial will examine the effectiveness of a novel group-based peer support intervention in reducing the psychological distress and other mental health symptoms of fathers compared to usual care. The economic and process evaluation will guide policy decision making along with informing the future implementation of WOD on a larger scale if effectiveness is demonstrated. TRIAL REGISTRATION: The current trial has been registered with ClinicalTrials.gov (Registration ID - NCT04813042 ). Date of Registration: March 22nd, 2021.

Crisis interventions for adults with borderline personality disorder.

BACKGROUND: People diagnosed with borderline personality disorder (BPD) frequently present to healthcare services in crisis, often with suicidal thoughts or actions. Despite this, little is known about what constitutes effective management of acute crises in this population and what type of interventions are helpful at times of crisis. In this review, we will examine the efficacy of crisis interventions, defined as an immediate response by one or more individuals to the acute distress experienced by another individual, designed to ensure safety and recovery and lasting no longer than one month. This review is an update of a previous Cochrane Review examining the evidence for the effects of crisis interventions in adults diagnosed with BPD. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of crisis interventions in adults diagnosed with BPD in any setting. SEARCH METHODS: We searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, nine other databases and three trials registers up to January 2022. We also checked reference lists, handsearched relevant journal archives and contacted experts in the field to identify any unpublished or ongoing studies. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing crisis interventions with usual care, no intervention or waiting list, in adults of any age diagnosed with BPD. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: We used standard methodological procedures expected by Cochrane. MAIN RESULTS: We included two studies with 213 participants. One study (88 participants) was a feasibility RCT conducted in the UK that examined the effects of joint crisis plans (JCPs) plus treatment as usual (TAU) compared to TAU alone in people diagnosed with BPD. The primary outcome was self-harm. Participants had an average age of 36 years, and 81% were women. Government research councils funded the study. Risk of bias was unclear for blinding, but low in the other domains assessed. Evidence from this study suggested that there may be no difference between JCPs and TAU on deaths (risk ratio (RR) 0.91, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.06 to 14.14; 88 participants; low-certainty evidence); mean number of self-harm episodes (mean difference (MD) 0.30, 95% CI -36.27 to 36.87; 72 participants; low-certainty evidence), number of inpatient mental health nights (MD 1.80, 95% CI -5.06 to 8.66; 73 participants; low-certainty evidence), or quality of life measured using the EuroQol five-dimension questionnaire (EQ-5D; MD -6.10, 95% CI -15.52 to 3.32; 72 participants; very low-certainty evidence). The study authors calculated an Incremental Cost Effectiveness Ratio of GBP -32,358 per quality-adjusted life year (QALY), favouring JCPs, but they described this result as "hypothesis-generating only" and we rated this as very low-certainty evidence.  The other study (125 participants) was an RCT conducted in Sweden of brief admission to psychiatric hospital by self-referral (BA) compared to TAU, in people with self-harm or suicidal behaviour and three or more diagnostic criteria for BPD. The primary outcome was use of inpatient mental health services. Participants had an average age of 32 years, and 85% were women. Government research councils and non-profit foundations funded the study. Risk of bias was unclear for blinding and baseline imbalances, but low in the other domains assessed. The evidence suggested that there is no clear difference between BA and TAU on deaths (RR 0.49, 95% CI 0.05 to 5.29; 125 participants; low-certainty evidence), mean number of self-harm episodes (MD -0.03, 95% CI -2.26 to 2.20; 125 participants; low-certainty evidence), violence perpetration (RR 2.95, 95% CI 0.12 to 71.13; 125 participants; low-certainty evidence), or days of inpatient mental health care (MD 0.70, 95% CI -14.32 to 15.72; 125 participants; low-certainty evidence). The study suggested that BA may have little or no effect on the mean number of suicide attempts (MD 0.00, 95% CI -0.06 to 0.06; 125 participants; very low-certainty evidence). We also identified three ongoing RCTs that met our inclusion criteria. The results will be incorporated into future updates of this review. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: A comprehensive search of the literature revealed very little RCT-based evidence to inform the management of acute crises in people diagnosed with BPD. We included two studies of two very different types of intervention (JCP and BA). We found no clear evidence of a benefit over TAU in any of our main outcomes. We are very uncertain about the true effects of either intervention, as the evidence was judged low- and very low-certainty, and there was only a single study of each intervention. There is an urgent need for high-quality, large-scale, adequately powered RCTs on crisis interventions for people diagnosed with BPD, in addition to development of new crisis interventions.

Prevalence of Mental Health and Addiction Service use Prior to and During Incarceration in Provincial Jails in Ontario, Canada: A Retrospective Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: Individuals with mental illness and addiction are overrepresented in prisons. Few studies have assessed mental health and addiction (MHA)-related service use among individuals experiencing incarceration using health administrative data and most focus on service use after prison release. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of MHA-related service use in the 5 years prior to and during incarceration. METHODS: We used linked correctional and administrative health data for people released from Ontario provincial jails in 2010. MHA-related service use in the 5 years prior to the index incarceration was categorized hierarchically into four mutually exclusive categories based on the type of service use: psychiatric hospitalization, MHA-related emergency department (ED) visit, MHA-related outpatient visit (from psychiatrist or primary care physician), and no MHA-related service use. Demographic, diagnostic, and incarceration characteristics were compared across the four service use categories. MHA-related service use during the index incarceration was assessed by category and length of incarceration. RESULTS: A total of 48,917 individuals were included. Prior to incarceration, 6,116 (12.5%) had a psychiatric hospitalization, 8,837 (18.1%) had an MHA-related ED visit, and 15,866 (32.4%) had an MHA-related outpatient visit. Of the individuals with any MHA-related service prior to incarceration, 60.4% did not receive outpatient care from a psychiatrist prior to incarceration and 65.6% did not receive MHA-related care during incarceration. CONCLUSION: Despite a high prevalence of mental illness and addiction among people experiencing incarceration, access to and use of MHA-related care prior to and during incarceration is poor. Increasing the accessibility and use of MHA-related services throughout the criminal justice pathway is warranted.

Circumstances and toxicology of violence-related deaths among young people who have had contact with the youth justice system: a data linkage study.

BACKGROUND: Young people who have had contact with the youth justice system have an increased risk of dying from violence. Examining the context of violence-related deaths is essential in informing prevention strategies. We examined the circumstances and toxicology of violence-related deaths among young people who have had contact with the youth justice system in Queensland, Australia. METHODS: This data linkage study linked youth justice records from Queensland, Australia (30 June 1993-1 July 2014) on 48,670 young people to national death and coroner records (1 July 2000-1 January 2017). Circumstances and toxicology of deaths were coded from coroner's records. We calculated the incidence of violence-related deaths that were reported to a coroner. Fisher's exact tests were used to examine crude differences in the circumstances and toxicology of violence-related death, according to sex and Indigenous status. RESULTS: There were 982 deaths reported to a coroner in the cohort. Of which, 36 (4%) were from violence-related causes (incidence: 6 per 100,000 person-years, 95% confidence interval: 4-8). People who died from violence were most frequently male (n = 28/36; 78%), and almost half were Indigenous (n = 16/36; 44%). The majority of violence-related deaths involved a weapon (n = 24/36; 67%), most commonly a knife (n = 17/36; 47%). Compared to men where the violent incident was most frequently preceded by an altercation (n = 12/28; 43%), for women it was frequently preceded by a relationship breakdown or argument (n < 5; p = 0.004). Substances most commonly present in toxicology reports were cannabis (n = 16/23; 70%) and alcohol (n = 15/23; 65%). CONCLUSIONS: Therapeutic alcohol and other drug programs, both in the community and detention, are likely important for reducing violence-related deaths among young people who have had contact with the youth justice system. The majority of violence-related deaths among women were in the context of intimate partner violence, indicating the urgent need for interventions that prevent intimate partner violence in this population. Diversion programs and increased investment in health and social services may reduce the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the youth justice system and in violence-related deaths.

Temporal variations in the distribution of self-harm episodes and methods across the Australian asylum seeker population: An observational study.

BACKGROUND: Temporal patterns in the frequency and characteristics of self-harm episodes across the Australian asylum seeker population may have implications for self-harm prevention and public health policy. The aim of this study was to examine how the distribution of self-harm episodes and method(s) of self-harm used across the Australian asylum seeker population vary according to the 24-hour cycle, day, and month, and to establish a basis for further research. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted an observational study of all 949 self-harm incidents reported across the Australian asylum seeker population (representing a monthly average of 28,992 adults) between 1 August 2014 and 31 July 2015, obtained by Freedom of Information (FOI) from the Department of Immigration. Time of self-harm, day, and month of occurrence were investigated across all five Australian asylum seeker populations (i.e., community-based arrangements, community detention, onshore immigration detention, offshore immigration detention [Nauru], and offshore immigration detention [Manus Island]). Significant variations in distributions over the 24-hour cycle were observed by processing arrangements. Compared with the average distribution across all other processing arrangements, self-harm more commonly occurred among community-based asylum seekers (36.3%) between 12:00 AM and 3:59 AM (p < 0.001), in asylum seekers on Manus Island (36.4%) between 4:00 PM and 7:59 PM (p = 0.02), and among asylum seekers in onshore detention (20.4%) between 8:00 PM and 11:59 PM (p < 0.001). Compared with the average distribution across all other methods, self-poisoning (by medication) (25%) was significantly more likely to occur between 12:00 AM and 3:59 AM (p = 0.009), and self-battery (42%) between 8:00 AM and 11:59 AM (p < 0.001). The highest and lowest monthly self-harm episode rates for the whole asylum seeker population were in August (2014) (5 episodes per 1,000 asylum seekers; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1-11) and in both January and February (2015) (2.1 episodes per 1,000 asylum seekers; 95% CI 0.6-7.2), respectively; however, the overlapping CIs indicate no statistically significant differences across the months. When examining monthly trends by processing arrangements, we observed that self-harm was significantly more likely to occur in August (2014) than other months of the year among asylum seekers in onshore detention (19%) (p < 0.001), in January (2015) on Manus Island (18%) (p = 0.002), and in October (2014) on Nauru (15%) (p < 0.001). The main study limitations were that we could not investigate certain characteristics associated with self-harm (e.g., gender, country of origin), as the Department of Immigration did not routinely collect such data. There was also the potential risk of making a type 1 error, given the exploratory nature of the comparisons we undertook; we minimised this by lowering our significance threshold from 0.05 to 0.01. CONCLUSIONS: Self-harm in the Australian asylum seeker population was found to vary according to time of day and month of the year, by processing arrangements. A series of procedure-related and detention-related factors were observed to be associated with the temporal variations in self-harm. These findings should form the basis for further investigation into temporal variations in self-harm among asylum seekers, which may in turn lead to effective self-harm prevention strategies.

Global Prison Health Care Governance and Health Equity: A Critical Lack of Evidence.

The large and growing population of people who experience incarceration makes prison health an essential component of public health and a critical setting for reducing health inequities. People who experience incarceration have a high burden of physical and mental health care needs and have poor health outcomes. Addressing these health disparities requires effective governance and accountability for prison health care services, including delivery of quality care in custody and effective integration with community health services.Despite the importance of prison health care governance, little is known about how prison health services are structured and funded or the methods and processes by which they are held accountable. A number of national and subnational jurisdictions have moved prison health care services under their ministry of health, in alignment with recommendations by the World Health Organization and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. However, there is a critical lack of evidence on current governance models and an urgent need for evaluation and research, particularly in low- and middle-income countries.Here we discuss why understanding and implementing effective prison health governance models is a critical component of addressing health inequities at the global level.

The Victorian Intergenerational Health Cohort Study (VIHCS): Study design of a preconception cohort from parent adolescence to offspring childhood.

BACKGROUND: There is increasing evidence that parental determinants of offspring early life development begin well before pregnancy. OBJECTIVES: We established the Victorian Intergenerational Health Cohort Study (VIHCS) to examine the contributions of parental mental health, substance use, and socio-economic characteristics before pregnancy to child emotional, physical, social, and cognitive development. POPULATION: Men and women were recruited from the Victorian Adolescent Health Cohort (VAHCS), an existing cohort study beginning in 1992 that assessed a representative sample of 1943 secondary school students in Victoria, Australia, repeatedly from adolescence (wave 1, mean age 14 years) to adulthood (wave 10, mean age 35 years). METHODS: Victorian Adolescent Health Cohort participants with children born between 2006 and 2013 were recruited to VIHCS and invited to participate during trimester three, at 2 months postpartum, and 1 year postpartum. Parental mental health, substance use and socio-economic characteristics were assessed repeatedly throughout; infant characteristics were assessed postnatally and in infancy. Data will be supplemented by linkage to routine datasets. A further follow-up is underway as children reach 8 years of age. PRELIMINARY RESULTS: Of the 1307 infants born to VAHCS participants between 2006 and 2013, 1030 were recruited to VIHCS. At VIHCS study entry, 18% of recruited parents had preconception common mental disorder in adolescence and young adulthood, 18% smoked daily in adolescence and young adulthood, and 6% had not completed high school. Half of VIHCS infants were female (48%), 4% were from multiple births, and 7% were preterm (<37 weeks' gestation). CONCLUSIONS: Victorian Intergenerational Health Cohort Study is a prospective cohort of 1030 children with up to nine waves of preconception parental data and three waves of perinatal parental and infant data. These will allow examination of continuities of parental health and health risks from the decades before pregnancy to offspring childhood, and the contributions of exposures before pregnancy to offspring outcomes in childhood.

An evaluation of the quality of self-harm incident reporting across the Australian asylum seeker population according to World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines.

BACKGROUND: Asylum seekers are at elevated risk of self-harm, and the personal and public health costs of self-harm are high; yet the monitoring and reporting of self-harm has been limited and lacking in transparency. This study aims to evaluate the quality of self-harm incident reporting across the Australian asylum seeker population, including by processing arrangements (i.e. community-based, community detention, onshore detention, Nauru, and Manus Island). METHODS: All self-harm incidents reported across the entire Australian asylum seeker population between 1 August 2014 and 31 July 2015 were obtained via the Freedom of Information Act. We assessed the quality of self-harm incident reporting according to the World Health Organization (WHO)'s self-harm reporting guidelines. RESULTS: A total of 949 self-harm incident reports were assessed. Date, location (processing arrangement), and time of self-harm were routinely reported. Gender was recorded in less than two thirds (62.1%) of all incidents. Method(s) used to self-harm was reported in 81.5% of all incidents, though IDC-10 codes were not reported in any episodes. Psychological or psychiatric assessments were recorded after 4.0% of all incidents, most frequently on Manus Island (10.9%), and in Nauru (10.0%), and least frequently in community-based arrangements (1.7%) and in onshore detention (1.4%), and not at all in community detention. Ambulances were reported as attending 2.8% of all episodes. Hospital attendances were reported following 6.0% of all self-harm incidents, with attendances most commonly reported in incidents occurring in community detention (30.3%), and in community-based arrangements (19.4%). Medevac (air ambulances) were recorded as being utilised in 0.4% of all incidents (2.1% of episodes on Nauru, 1.8% on Manus Island). CONCLUSIONS: The findings of our study indicate that the accessibility and quality of self-harm data is substandard and inconsistent with WHO self-harm reporting guidelines. Such variable reporting makes the identification of self-harm trends, the implementation of prevention strategies - including those at a policy level - and the clinical management of self-harm, extremely challenging. Improved self-harm reporting and monitoring is urgently needed for mitigating and responding to self-harm risk among asylum seekers.

Age-specific incidence of injury-related hospital contact after release from prison: a prospective data-linkage study.

BACKGROUND: In population studies, the risk of injury declines after early adulthood. It is unclear if a similar age difference in the risk of injury exists among people released from prison. METHODS: Prerelease survey data collected between 1 August 2008 and 31 July 2010, from a representative cohort of sentenced adults (≥18 years) in Queensland, Australia, were linked prospectively and retrospectively to person-level emergency department, inpatient hospital and correctional records. To ascertain predictors of injury-related hospital contact, we fit a multivariate Andersen-Gill model and tested the interactions between age group (<25 years, ≥25 years) and each variable. RESULTS: In 1307 adults released from prison, there were 3804 person-years of follow-up. The crude injury rate was 385 (95% CI 364 to 407) per 1000 person-years and did not differ according to age group. Factors associated with increased injury-related hospital contact included a history of mental illness, preincarceration injury, a history of incarceration, release from a short prison sentence (<90 days), being reincarcerated during follow-up and identifying as Indigenous. The effect of mental illness, risky alcohol use, prior incarceration and intellectual disability differed across age group and predicted increased risk of injury among people aged ≥25 years compared with their counterparts without these characteristics. CONCLUSIONS: Unlike in the general population where the risk of injury declines with age, older adults released from prison are at similar risk compared with their younger peers. Adults released from prison with mental illness, a history of injury-related hospital contact and who identify as Indigenous are particularly indicated groups for injury prevention.

Burden of injury along the development spectrum: associations between the Socio-demographic Index and disability-adjusted life year estimates from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017.

BACKGROUND: The epidemiological transition of non-communicable diseases replacing infectious diseases as the main contributors to disease burden has been well documented in global health literature. Less focus, however, has been given to the relationship between sociodemographic changes and injury. The aim of this study was to examine the association between disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) from injury for 195 countries and territories at different levels along the development spectrum between 1990 and 2017 based on the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) 2017 estimates. METHODS: Injury mortality was estimated using the GBD mortality database, corrections for garbage coding and CODEm-the cause of death ensemble modelling tool. Morbidity estimation was based on surveys and inpatient and outpatient data sets for 30 cause-of-injury with 47 nature-of-injury categories each. The Socio-demographic Index (SDI) is a composite indicator that includes lagged income per capita, average educational attainment over age 15 years and total fertility rate. RESULTS: For many causes of injury, age-standardised DALY rates declined with increasing SDI, although road injury, interpersonal violence and self-harm did not follow this pattern. Particularly for self-harm opposing patterns were observed in regions with similar SDI levels. For road injuries, this effect was less pronounced. CONCLUSIONS: The overall global pattern is that of declining injury burden with increasing SDI. However, not all injuries follow this pattern, which suggests multiple underlying mechanisms influencing injury DALYs. There is a need for a detailed understanding of these patterns to help to inform national and global efforts to address injury-related health outcomes across the development spectrum.

Self-harm among asylum seekers in Australian onshore immigration detention: how incidence rates vary by held detention type.

BACKGROUND: Detained asylum seekers are at increased risk of self-harm, and the type of detention in which they are held may further exacerbate this risk. In Australia, there are four types of closed (or held) immigration detention for people seeking asylum, with varying levels of security and supports: Immigration Detention Centres [IDCs], Immigration Transit Accommodation [ITAs], Immigration Residential Housing [IRH], and Alternative Places of Detention [APODs]. The objective of this study was to examine the variation in the incidence and method(s) of self-harm among asylum seekers in Australian onshore immigration detention, according to the type of detention in which they are held. METHODS: We obtained data on all self-harm incidents reported among asylum seekers in Australian onshore immigration detention according to held detention type, as well as individual facility, between 1 August 2014 and 31 July 2015, by Freedom of Information. We calculated self-harm episode rates per 1000 asylum seekers using the average population figures for held detention type, as well as for each individual facility comprising the main types of held detention. Method(s) used to self-harm was also extracted for the main sub-populations. RESULTS: The study included 560 episodes of self-harm. Individual facility rates of self-harm ranged from 91 per 1000 asylum seekers (95% CI 72-110) in Yongah Hill IDC to 533 per 1000 asylum seekers (95% CI 487-578) in Perth IDC. On average, calculated self-harm episode rates were highest among asylum seekers in: Immigration Transit Accommodation facilities, 452/1000 (95% CI 410-493); Alternative Places of Detention, 265/1000 (95% CI 233-296); and Immigration Detention Centres, 225/1000 (95% CI 195-254). The most frequently reported methods of self-harm across the main types of held detention were: cutting (35.2%), self-battery (34.8%), and attempted hanging (11.1%). CONCLUSIONS: Self-harm rates for asylum seekers in all types of closed immigration detention were many times higher than rates found in the general population. Average rates were not lower in facilities with lower security features.

Health, social and criminal justice factors associated with dual diagnosis among incarcerated adults in Brazil and Australia: a cross-national comparison.

PURPOSE: To estimate the prevalence of dual diagnosis and identify health, social and criminal justice factors associated with dual diagnosis among incarcerated adults in Australia and Brazil. METHODS: We compared data from cross-sectional surveys of incarcerated adults (aged ≥ 18 years) in Australia and Brazil. Using data from linked emergency department, hospital, and in-prison medical records in the Australian sample, and from the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI) in the Brazilian sample, participants were categorised as having: (1) no mental disorder; (2) substance use disorder only; (3) mental illness only; or (4) dual diagnosis. A multivariate multinomial logistic regression model was fitted to identify factors associated with dual diagnosis in each country. RESULTS: Approximately one quarter of participants in both Australia (22%) and Brazil (25%) met the diagnostic criteria for dual diagnosis. In both countries, dual diagnosis was associated with being female [relative risk (RR) = 2.25 (95% CI 1.47-3.43) Australia; RR = 2.59 (95% CI 1.79-3.74) Brazil], having a history of prior incarceration [RR = 2.99 (95% CI 1.99-4.48) Australia; RR = 2.27 (95% CI 1.57-3.29) Brazil], and having comorbid physical health problems [RR = 1.54 (95% CI 1.08-2.19) Australia; RR = 2.53 (95% CI 1.75-3.65) Brazil]. CONCLUSIONS: Despite differences in health, social, and criminal justice systems between Australia and Brazil, the prevalence of and factors associated with dual diagnosis in incarcerated adults appear to be similar in the two countries. A number of generalisable principles can be inferred and should be considered in health and criminal justice policy making.

Pre-conception self-harm, maternal mental health and mother-infant bonding problems: a 20-year prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Self-harm in young people is associated with later problems in social and emotional development. However, it is unknown whether self-harm in young women continues to be a marker of vulnerability on becoming a parent. This study prospectively describes the associations between pre-conception self-harm, maternal depressive symptoms and mother-infant bonding problems. METHODS: The Victorian Intergenerational Health Cohort Study (VIHCS) is a follow-up to the Victorian Adolescent Health Cohort Study (VAHCS) in Australia. Socio-demographic and health variables were assessed at 10 time-points (waves) from ages 14 to 35, including self-reported self-harm at waves 3-9. VIHCS enrolment began in 2006 (when participants were aged 28-29 years), by contacting VAHCS women every 6 months to identify pregnancies over a 7-year period. Perinatal depressive symptoms were assessed with the Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale during the third trimester, and 2 and 12 months postpartum. Mother-infant bonding problems were assessed with the Postpartum Bonding Questionnaire at 2 and 12 months postpartum. RESULTS: Five hundred sixty-four pregnancies from 384 women were included. One in 10 women (9.7%) reported pre-conception self-harm. Women who reported self-harming in young adulthood (ages 20-29) reported higher levels of perinatal depressive symptoms and mother-infant bonding problems at all perinatal time points [perinatal depressive symptoms adjusted ß = 5.40, 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.42-7.39; mother-infant bonding problems adjusted ß = 7.51, 95% CI 3.09-11.92]. There was no evidence that self-harm in adolescence (ages 15-17) was associated with either perinatal outcome. CONCLUSIONS: Self-harm during young adulthood may be an indicator of future vulnerability to perinatal mental health and mother-infant bonding problems.